International seminar on

Current and Future Challenges in Design

and Construction of Underwater Vehicles
November 22, 2016
FICCI Federation House,Tansen Marg, New Delhi
Contents

1 Timely adaptation of cutting edge technology for diverse submarine systems - a structured multi
disciplinary group approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 05
Cmde Shishir Shrotriya, ADG WESEE

2 Air independent propulsion, the role of fuel cells in supply of silent powers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Cdr Ayush Khandelwal, WESEE

3 Lessons from submarine design and construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Capt Amit Ray, SBC

4 Air regeneration processes onboard underwater platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Devinder Singh Pannu Sc ‘É’ & Lt Cdr H M Pradeep

5 Shock resistance estimation using transient analysis of finite element model of submarine equipment . 46
Vishal Sharma and Cdr Sunil Tyagi

6 Study on multi effect desalination system for naval applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Lt Cdr Sahil Julka & Lt Cdr Prashant Sharma

7 Effective design of submarine equipment mounting scheme. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Lt Cdr L Kaushik & Cdr Sunil Tyagi

8 Roll motion control of submarines at free surface using juxtapositioned stern plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Lt Cdr K G Das, ND(V)

9 Application of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and high performance computing (HPC)
for submarine design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Devinder Singh Pannu Sc ‘É’ & Aniruddha Joshi

10 Integrated control systems and smart sensors for future submarine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Cdr Yoginder Sharma

11 Integrated construction management system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

Lt Cdr Aheesh Gaur

12 Power quality improvement at load/consumer in ships & submarines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

Lt Cdr Aheesh Gaur

13 CFD Analysis of a Missile Launch from a Static Underwater Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

Lt Cdr Ishaq Makkar

14 Finite Element Analysis of Residual Stress due to welding in submarine Hull. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Lt P Nagaja
15 Dependency of Hydrodynamic Coefficients on Geometrical Considerations for an Axisymmetric
Submersible Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Lt Nitin Sharma

16 Structural Similitude and Scaling of Pressure Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Lt Harleen Kaur

17 Pump Less Hydraulic Design for Steering System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

Lt Cdr D K Tiwari

18 Design, Fabrication and Analysis of Composite Drive Shaft for Future Underwater Application . . . . . . . 216
Lt Cdr Swathi G

19 Design of next generation electric drive submarines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

Captain Arvind Ranganathan (GM Project Varsha)

20 Feasibility of using lithium titanate batteries for exploitation on board conventional submarines
and rapid charging with marine gas turbine generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Cdr RS Ramesh, ND(V) Cdr Ramesh Kumar Lakra

21 Non-magnetic pressure hull – future concepts for submarine design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

Lt Cdr Vikram Singh, INA

22 Defence research, development and production need to redesign and realign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Cdr Achal Malhotra & Cdr U P Singh

23 Project management – an essential tool for submarine construction projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

Capt Doogar, CDM

24 Underwater optical wireless communication-an alternative to conventional acoustic techniques for

underwater applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Lt Cdr Ankit Atree (INA, Ezhimala)

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 article

1 TIMELY ADAPTATION OF CUTTING EDGE TECHNOLOGY

FOR DIVERSE SUBMARINE SYSTEMS-A STRUCTURED
MULTI-DISCIPLINARY GROUP APPROACH
(Cmde Shishir Shrotriya, ADG WESEE)

Introduction
1. The wide-ranging advances in the technology have been taking place far too rapidly and the
revolution in technological areas has made a far-reaching impact on the Submarine
Technologies and Systems. This technological revolution has also left a distinct influence on the
system maintenance and long-term support. In the domain of submarine technologies, the
pace of the technological shift, the complexities of the systems inducted requires a deeper
appreciation of the technologies and the infrastructure support we need to develop to maintain
and optimally exploit these systems over their life-cycle. Answering the challenges of evolving
an adequate technology management methodology has triggered a debate of sorts, on the
essential and immediate requirements of the supportability and reliability.
2. Self reliance and developing core-competence in the required fields by synergising our
resources is the key question we need to address while we intend to succeed and sustain the
technologies inducted optimally for coming few decades.
3. This paper aims to identify, analyse and predict the challenges of the inducting newer
technologies and formulate a plan to tame these challenges ingeniously for a long-term reliable
sustenance of the submarine systems with the appropriate interface of all other Stake-holders.

Key Requirements for Submarine Technology / System Induction and LCS

4. The environment today needs a constant in-depth study of the systems inducted from diverse
sources and its suitability. The Navy requires a detailed and documented analysis of the newer
technology in order to advice its implementation.
5. The long delay in induction of new technologies is generally attributed to the lack of awareness
to the systems/technologies view limited information provided by the OEM or our inability to
pursue complete know-how or transfer of technology or also our conservative attitude in
experimenting with these systems. Thus, we need to create a life long structured approach
towards developing technical know-how, practices and maintenance paradigms to adapt and
support the cutting-edge submarine technologies with our indigenous industry.
6. The approach we follow for long-term exploitation of the systems inducted, suffers from the fact
that while inducting we are unable to clearly define and standardise these systems for all new
acquisitions. A newer generation of the equipment is developed every two to three years by any
major defence sector OEMs. Usage of modular COTS (Commercial Of The Shelf) technology and
OSA (Open System Architecture) in the Military systems is a reality. In order to adapt and sustain

5
 the Naval systems we need to arrive at research methods that only the matured and
supportable technology is implemented.

Technology support for Submarine Systems

7. In order to cope up with these challenges and identify suitable areas to adapt the emerging
technology for Naval Submarines, there is a need to define the related technological areas.
These can be sub-divided into the under-mentioned broad categories :-
(a)Technological Awareness. We need across the board awareness amongst all personnel
related to the submarine (defence) industry about the advancements in technology and its
usage in related fields. For this, we must have expertise to understand, realise the
changing environment and keep a continuous technology watch. This could be achieved by
developing a database or information bank where the evolution of appropriate new
technology is prepared, stored, reported and retrieved. This information bank could serve
as a basis to draw guidelines and procedures for embracing the technology for appropriate
submarine systems. Thus we need to continuously research and develop an intelligent
decision-support system to evaluate the technology/systems under consideration and
draw comprehensive guidelines for adaptation of the same.
(b)Technology Management.There should be a mechanism to examine the process of
identifying, development and induction of matured new technology for Naval
applications. These comprehensive technology management guidelines are suggested to
be drafted under the following broad concepts:-
(i) Reliability - of the technology under consideration.
(ii) Operability- in our operational environment.
(iii)Supportability - in terms of supplier, developing organisations, promoters and with future
reference to spares etc.
(iv)Interoperability - of systems from diverse sources.
(v)Compatibility - with existing systems/technology.
(vi)Configurability - in terms of the architecture suited for submarine applications.
(vii)Usability - in terms of its adherence to the military or desired specifications.
(viii)Affordability - in comparison to other systems/technology and their associated
advantages/disadvantages.
(c)Requirement Analysis. A detailed requirement analysis needs to be done up to the system
level, clearly describing the pros and cons of the system/technology under consideration.
This analysis would further help the defence industry evolve the system specifications,
its architecture and the configuration in keeping with the operational requirements.
(d)Transition Readiness. Transition readiness guidelines promulgation and thereafter
adherence to these guidelines is important task. The risk of migrating from one
technology/system to another, keeping the older generation of equipment in operational

6
 condition whilst switching over to the newer generation needs utmost attention. These
systematic "process guidelines" are then mandatory to improve, support and accelerate
the transition process.
(e)Industry Co-operation for R&D. There is definite and most important requirement of
promoting and grooming the vast indigenous resources of our industry to participate not
only in design and development of submarine systems but also for long-term maintenance
and upkeep of systems inducted. The Militarily advanced countries for past so many years
have groomed their indigenous industry to reach to the present level of industry
participation in defence applications. Further, all major business groups have a 'Vendor
development cell'. While, there is a need for transparency in all Govt. contracts, the need
for Vendor Development to groom our industry to develop core competencies in
submarine sector cannot be overlooked for a self-reliance. Therefore we need to study and
recommend measures for establishing linkages with the industrial research systems and
the industrial production base for long-term association which will establish and sustain
the required ecosystem for this sector.
(f)ToT of Submarine Technologies. Defining structured and consistent approach for ToTs is
significant. The guidelines for these ToT contracts need to be carefully incorporated at each
stage in consultation with the participating industry and our research agencies for the
measurable and wider benefits. The guidelines should clearly specify the process for
Technology Assessment, Valuation and Cost Estimation for ToT and required infrastructure
for manufacturing and qualification. Documents and Processes for Software, Hardware
and System Engineering transfer with measurable deliverables at each stage of design,
prototyping, integration, qualification and acceptance form are significant.
(g)Technology Absorption. Internal R&D and Knowledge upgrade is a vital component of the
"absorptive capacity", that is, our "capability to distinguish the value of new external
information, its assimilation and application for submarine specific domain. Technology
Absorption cannot be done by one time training or ToTs. This can only be done through
creation of absorptive capacity with all concerned stake-holders in the ecosystem, which is
a repeated effort required to be followed up and sustained in a structured way.
8. The areas requiring technological support and discussed in the preceding paragraphs warrant
renewed/new management processes with closer linkages and co-ordination primarily
between all identified stake-holders for adapting large scale, time-bound and tangible
applications of the technology through its life cycle. These tasks need to be accomplished by
creating renewed structures to integrate and synthesize our resources to bring together the
grossly under utilised indigenous industry with DRDO, Academia, Public sector, Governmental
agencies and most importantly the User(Indian Navy). The brief requirements for
accomplishing the above tasks are enumerated below :-
(a) Channelise resources from within the Navy and industry to generate core teams for
evaluation and implementation of technology/systems for the submarine projects.
(b) Draw structured approach to aid the Governmental and Non-Governmental agencies to
evaluate & acquire the emerging technologies/products for usage in Submarines.

7
 (c) Develop and maintain a database of emerging technologies for naval submarine systems,
its vendor support, associated governing bodies and promoters to reliably determine the
desired features of technology management.
(d) Evolve process guidelines for implementation of projects and transition guidelines after in-
depth study and analysis with the help of experts in the industry.
(e) Promote and usher partnership with leaders in technology amongst indigenous industry,
our premier academic institutions to formulate programmes for research and
development and also long-term maintenance and upkeep of Submarine systems.
(g) Work on technological partnerships with advanced and developed nations like U.S,
Singapore, Israel and France etc. to gain competitive advantage of consortium approach for
mutual benefits.

Recommendations
9. The success of meeting the above proposals largely depends on the available infrastructure
support. Thus, it is desirable to create nodal agency which could be christened as Submarine
Technology Adaptation Centre (SubTAC) to closely and technologically interface the resources
of our industry for meeting the requirements of Submarine Systems LCS.
10. The SubTAC will work to fulfil the above expectations to prepare & promote our industry for
larger co-operation. To maintain the flexibility of working, funding and minimise the
hierarchical bureaucracy, it is discernible to ideally set-up the Submarine Technology
Adaptation Centre(SubTAC) with participation of all stake-holders. The organisation can be
perceived and developed as an autonomous unit under the Design Directorates to promote
direct research and development in developing indigenous technology or adaptation of
imported technology for Submarine systems.
11. The creation of such a body shall also provision for an in-house consultant, who can provide the
requisite expertise and have answers that are mandatory for a systematic, sustained and
methodical growth of technology in the Naval Submarine systems.

Immediate Plans for SubTAC

12. Certain imperative and immediate project/tasks for SubTAC are enumerated below. A few of
these projects(Appendix 'A') which are already underway, can be better accomplished by
implementing the preceding recommendations:-
(a) Steer a sustainable growth by technologically interfacing and liaisoning to promote larger
participation from Stake-holders in design, development and Life Cycle support of
Submarine Technologies and Systems as per staff projections.
(b) Study and improve supportability of COTS technology/devices in naval Submarine systems
where OEM support has diminished. Develop resources through directed research and
initiatives for the in-house technological support within the dynamically changing
requirements.

8
 (c) Create the technological database as knowledge management for the life-long learning
requirements in the field of submarines weapons and systems and disseminate information
as consultants or through continuous QIPs/CEPs to the relevant stake-holders.
(d) Strengthen and contribute to existing technology initiatives by MoD/Shipyards/PSU/IHQ.

Conclusion
13. As long as we continue to depend on external sources for our Naval technologies/ systems and
do not initiate concrete steps to develop our industry to imbibe technology, we will remain
hostage to the ever-changing environment.
14. The knowledge of technological inter-dependence and self-reliance, can only lead us to
strategic advantages. Thus renewed thrust and structured approach from the proposed
Submarine Technology Adaptation Center towards a renewed Defence-Corporate-Academia
Stake-holder partnership may help in achieving our vision & goals set for immediate and long
term future requirements and contribute towards an advanced and self sustainable Submarine
Sector.

9
 Appendix 'A'

Key Focus Technology Areas

1. Optics and Optronics for Periscope

2. Si Based Smart Sensor Technology

3. Fiber Optics Acoustic Sensors

4. Homing Head Hardware and Software algorithms for Torpedoes

5. WFCS Hardware & Software Algorithms

6. Long Life Safety Critical Submarine Batteries

7. High Bandwidth and Secure Radios

8. Propulsion Motor Integration

9. Reduction and controlled radiated noise

10. Decoy Systems

11. Submarine Hull Design Technologies

12. Composite material for submarines systems

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Author's Biodata

Commodore Shishir Shrotriya, is currently posted at Weapons and

Electronics Systems Engineering Establishment (WESEE), a R&D
organisation under Ministry of Defence, as the Addl. Director General. The
author has held various academic assignments which include, Instructor at
the Naval Electrical Training Establishment INS Valsura at Jamnagar,
Command Training Officer at the Training Command Headquarters of the
Indian Navy at Kochi and as Head of Faculty (ECE) at the Indian Naval
Academy, Ezhimala, Kerala. Commodore Shishir Shrotriya has also held
other important assignment as Director Software Engineering Group (SEG)
and has authored/presented various papers at International and National
level seminars. The author has also been instrumental in setting up a Centre
for Techno Strategic Studies at Cochin University of Sc. & Technology (CUSAT)
and a Chair for Maritime Studies at the Calicut University. The author is a
post graduate (M Tech) from IIT Delhi and can be contacted on
shishir_sh@rediffmail.com.

11
 article

2 AIR INDEPENDENT PROPULSION

THE ROLE OF FUEL CELLS IN SUPPLY OF
SILENT POWER
(Cdr Ayush Khandelwal (51955-B)

Abstract- Stealth is an important factor in littoral operations. Air Independent propulsion deals with
powering a submarine without access to atmosphere or air. As we know that every diesel engine
needs access to an air supply to work. So, the submarine has to resurface after every fixed interval in
order to refill the air (oxygen) supply. This makes it difficult to have long stealthy operations under
water in a submarine. It is true that a nuclear submarine can stay underwater for months. But, a
nuclear powered submarine needs constant pumping of cooling water inside out, causing a lot of
pumps to run which in turn causes a lot of vibration. Also the installation of an entire nuclear reactor
makes the whole submarine a significantly large in size. So, it cannot be used for silent and stealthy
operations. Stealthy power sources for underwater vehicles include air-independent propulsion
technologies, such as fuel cells, perhaps hybridized with an energy store such as an advanced
battery. The hybrid combination provides the most covert solution, with good underwater
endurance. Of the fuel cell technologies examined, the proton exchange membrane fuel cell
(PEMFC) currently offers the best performance, and we review relevant fuel and oxidant options.

Introduction
While conventional submarines are far more effective in the littoral environment vis-à-vis their
larger, more powerful and noisier nuclear counterparts, the limited dived endurance is also their
greatest vulnerability
Perhaps the single greatest limitation in conventional submarine operations is the constraint on
their dived endurance or the period they can remain dived without having to recharge their
batteries. This duration is determined by the rate of discharge of the submarine's batteries which in
turn depends upon the propulsion, speed, machinery and equipment running on board, and the
tactical situation prevalent in the area. It is this limitation with its consequential effect on speed,
stealth and concealment that makes conventional submarines vulnerable to detection, particularly
in a geographically limited littoral environment. Herein lies the paradox; while conventional
submarines are far more effective in the littoral environment vis-à-vis their larger, more powerful
and noisier nuclear counterparts with concealment and stealth being their greatest assets, the
limited dived endurance is also their greatest vulnerability as it exposes them to detection from the
air and from surface platform in a relatively restricted oceanic space.
It is this limitation on dived endurance that has led the enthusiasts of nuclear powered submarines
to contemptuously dismiss conventional submarines as "mere submersibles" to quote the
legendary initiator of nuclear powered submarines, Admiral Hyman G. Rickover on a visit to an
Indian Naval Submarine in December 1982.

12
Nuclear submarines are also of two types. There are the strategic ballistic missile submarines
(SSBN) also called Boomers and the Attack submarines (SSN). The former are the ultimate
instrument of nuclear deterrence as they combine concealment and speed with a weapon arsenal
that can destroy the world several times over. During the Cold War, these submarines ensured that
the war remained 'cold' and in the post-Cold War period have continued to deliver deterrence in an
increasingly dangerous world. SSNs on the other hand are designed for speed, endurance and
lethality; while their primary role was to tail the SSBNs, they have proved to be extremely effective
in an expeditionary 21st century littoral environment with their cruise missile capability and long
endurance limited only by the human factor on board. SSNs have repeatedly proved their versatility
and reach from the Falklands in 1982 to Libya in more recent times.

Why Air Independent Propulsion?

The imperative for the development of the first AIP systems was the high loss rate of Kriegsmarine
U-boats in the Battle of the Atlantic, when confronted by well-armed Allied maritime patrol aircraft.
Diesel-electric U-boats had to run surfaced to recharge their battery systems, which made them
susceptible to detection by the basic radar equipment carried by RAF Coastal Command and US
Navy aircraft. Attempts to 'shoot it out' with aircraft using deck-mounted guns were mostly
unsuccessful. Crash dives to evade the attacker would only succeed if the aircraft was sighted very
early, or its radar emissions detected.
The inventive engineers of the Kriegsmarine developed the snorkel to permit the U-boat to run
submerged and draw air in for the diesels, so the batteries could be recharged while the U-boat was
submerged. Snorkels however produce a bow wave, a trough and wake, and these were also
detectable by improving search radars, albeit at very much shorter ranges than a surfaced boat. By
the early 1950s snorkels had become the technology of choice for submarine operators globally.
While snorkels are now clad in radar absorbent materials, and often shaped to minimise their bow
wave and wake signature, they continue to provide a detectable signature, exposing the boat to any
maritime aircraft with a good search radar system. This is because all submerged submarines
produce a roughly conical disturbance in the water which expands outward behind the submarine,
dissipating in intensity with time and distance. The strength of this disturbance increases with the
speed of the submarine. As the disturbance expands behind the submarine, it eventually hits the
surface, producing a roughly paraboloid surface disturbance, pointing in the same direction the
submarine was travelling when it produced the wake. At snorkel depth even a ponderous 10 knots
will produce a visible wake, which can be observed on numerous images of submarines at periscope
or snorkel depth. Snorkelling will thus present a much greater risk than at any previous time, as the
boat will produce a hull wake signature, a snorkel wake signature, a snorkel paint signature, and
snorkel shadow signature.
The answer is of course to avoid snorkelling if possible, and spend as much time as possible as deep
as possible and as slow as tactically feasible, all of which present major operational challenges for a
diesel-electric boat design. As with the pressures that led to the first attempts at AIP more than half
a century ago, it has been an unexpected advance in opposing sensor technology that has forced

13
evolutionary change. AIP becomes not only a necessity for a submarine but also a mission critical
and survival critical single point of failure for the boat. A non-nuclear-propelled, or conventional,
oceangoing submarine will require a substantial alternative power generation capability. As well, to
avoid detection, it will need to reduce the sound of noisy diesel generators to an absolute
minimum. This leads to the topic of non-nuclear Air Independent Propulsion (AIP) systems. AIP is a
power source that does not require access to the surface atmosphere to generate power.

Requirement for Non-Nuclear AIP

In response to the challenges of propulsion for submarines, in the late 1940s, the US government
started the development of an AIP system to allow US submarines to become independent of the
surface atmosphere. The United States expended massive resources to develop this technology. In
1954 the American submarine USS Nautilus became the world's first ship to be powered by a true
AIP system, a nuclear reactor, which subsequently became the power source for all US submarines.
A nuclear power train is the ultimate AIP as it presents no restrictions on submerged time. However
attractive this choice might be from a strategic, operational and tactical perspective, in many
nations it is politically risky due to high levels of perceived and imagined risks in the public domains.
It is unlikely therefore that nuclear propulsion will be studied and publicly assessed from an
objective and rational perspective. The politics of perceptions rather than hard fact would
dominate any attempt to pursue nuclear powered submarines. Nuclear submarines are very
expensive, not only to build the boat (yes, submariners refer to their vessels as 'boats'), but the
extensive infrastructure required to support them - a nuclear industry with all of the necessary
safeguards, advanced training for all members of the crew, isolated high-security bases, etc. At the
moment these boats are operated by just six states: USA, Russia, UK, France China and India. All six
countries possess both ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs) and SSNs, indeed all but Russia and
China now operate only nuclear-powered vessels.
That apart the limited utility of nuclear submarines in a littoral environment characterised by
relatively shallower depths has led almost 40 nations to operate conventional submarines and this
number is growing. Vietnam has recently ordered six Kilo class submarines from Russia. Bangladesh
has also shown keenness in acquiring submarines, with China apparently willing to oblige. The
entire Indo-Pacific region has in fact seen a proliferation of submarines as they provide the
maximum bang for the buck in delivering the cutting edge of offensive firepower to any navy and
are therefore the most effective instruments of sea denial, i.e. denying the use of the sea to the
enemy and particularly if it is a more powerful one. While most submarine manufacturers offer
different non-nuclear AIP systems, and several are currently in service, none can offer the range of
benefits of nuclear propulsion. That said, the non-nuclear versions do allow a submarine to
generate power without having to snort for limited periods of time.

Choosing an AIP system

One of the realities of this era is that any military Service about to decide on a new technology for a

14
basic force structure component will have to contend with a deluge of glossy brochures, Power
Point slides and briefings, all of which commend the virtues of a particular solution, and all of which
profess to be without 'sin' of any kind. The situation is no different with AIP systems, whether they
are offered as retrofits to legacy boats or as part of a new-construction boat. In assessing the merits
of any AIP system several factors are important. Some of them are enumerated below:-
o Acoustic signature contribution produced by the AIP system in specific operating
regimes, but especially at varying speeds and depths.
o Vulnerability of the AIP systems, especially oxidiser storage, to near miss explosive
overpressure effects otherwise not lethal to the submarine or its systems.
o Various failure modes of the AIP system and its oxidiser/fuel storage, and to what extent
are these repairable if a failure or battle damage arise in a contested patrol area.o
Failover modes and internal redundancy in the AIP system, and what 'casualty' modes
exist if a catastrophic failure arises to get the boat out of danger.
o Replenishment of oxidiser and fuel from a tender when operating at large distances from
a friendly port.
o Lifecycle cost of operating and maintaining the AIP system.
In the final analysis, any AIP system will need to be subjected to some representative and tough
testing before it even makes a shortlist, since AIP is becoming a mission critical single point of failure
for the submarine in a combat environment. If the AIP system fails for whatever reason while the
submarine is operating in a contested area, it may not have the option of snorkelling home.

Current Technologies in AIP

Although major naval powers like United States, United Kingdom, and Russia turned quickly to
submarine nuclear propulsion as soon as it became technically feasible, smaller navies have
remained committed to conventional diesel-electric submarines, largely for coastal defense. Many
of these have incorporated innovations originally pioneered in the German Type XXI, but more
recently, growing demand for longer underwater endurance has generated increasing interest in
promising AIP technologies, both old and new. Currently, system developers are actively pursuing
the following generic approaches for achieving "closed cycle" operation. These non-nuclear AIP
systems can be broken down into four main types, all of which require liquid oxygen (LOX) to
operate:
n Closed-cycle diesel engines, generally with stored liquid oxygen (LOX)
n Closed-cycle steam turbines
n Stirling-cycle heat engines with external combustion
n Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells

15
Closed-cycle diesel engines

Closed cycle diesel or CCD AIP systems employ a stored supply of oxygen to operate a diesel engine
when fully submerged. The technology was trialled initially by the Kriegsmarine and later adopted
by the Soviet Voenno-Morskii Flot in 30 boats of the Quebec class, in which one of the three diesels
could be used as an AIP system using stored liquid oxygen (LOX). In such designs the oxygen is mixed
with exhaust gasses or inert gasses to protect engine components. The Soviet boats proved
troublesome to operate, prone to fires, with limited endurance due to LOX boil-off, and were
scrapped during the 1970s. While closed cycle diesel AIP is a simple technology, the principal
challenge lies in storing the oxygen supply in a way that presents a low risk in operation. A stable
liquid fuel that could be catalytically decomposed would present the best choice for such designs.
The current CCD AIP systems offered by Thyssen Nordseewerke in Germany use diesel, LOX and
Argon as the inert gas component.

Closed-cycle steam turbines

Closed cycle steam turbine AIP systems could be best compared to nuclear systems, in that heat is
used to generate steam, which via a turbine or turbo generator package drives the propulsion
system. In effect, the nuclear pile is replaced by a stored oxygen fuel burning heat source. The fuel
and oxidiser mix used for the AIP system is then specific to the design in question. DCN in France
offer the MESMA (Module d'Energie Sous-Marine Autonome) system in a lengthened Scorpene
class boat, requiring the insertion of an 8.5 metre 305 tonne hull section. The MESMA system burns
ethanol, using stored LOX as the oxidiser. The propellant mix is burned at 60 atm pressure. DCN
claim up to three times the submerged endurance of the basic diesel-electric Scorpene class, or up
to 18 days. Like LOX based CCD AIP systems, the MESMA will be primarily constrained by the need to
store and handle LOX.

Stirling Engines
Stirling engine technology dates back to 1816, but had to wait until very recently to find a volume
production application, which is AIP systems in submarines. Stirling engines are often compared to
reciprocating steam engines, in that they employ a piston-cylinder assembly, but they differ
fundamentally, in that the working fluid in the engine is sealed and separated from the heat source,
in a closed cycle arrangement. Heat is provided to the Stirling engine by the external combustion of
a fuel and oxidiser. The Swedish Kockums AIP system employs LOX as the oxidiser and diesel as the
fuel, which are combusted at a pressure higher than that of the surrounding water mass permitting
the exhaust to be directly vented to sea. The Stirling engine is coupled to a generator that feeds into
the boats' primary electrical system. As with other AIP systems burning diesel and LOX, the LOX
supply is the principal constraint to achievable endurance. Other than Sweden's Kockums, Stirling
AIP is reported to be used by the PLA.

16
Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells
Fuel cell based AIP systems typically employ a hydrogen oxygen fuel cell to generate electrical
current, which then powers the boat's systems. Fuel cells have been employed successfully for
decades in space vehicles that employ LOX and liquid hydrogen as main engine propellants. The
principal issue in operating any fuel cell based system is the manner in which the oxygen and
hydrogen are stored prior to introduction into the fuel cell. The fuel cell produces distilled water as a
waste product. A key attraction in fuel cell systems is the virtual absence of moving parts in most key
components, which makes them exceptionally quiet in terms of machinery noise, compared to
closed cycle diesel and turbine systems.

Fuel Cell Systems

As discussed above, the AIP technologies like the Stirling engine, the closed-cycle diesel generator,
and the French MESMA system are mechanical devices relying on moving parts, with a lower
potential fuel and oxidant efficiency; this is illustrated by the oxygen consumption rates in Figure 1.

Oxygen consump on
12

0.8
kg/kWh

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
Fuel cell CCDG S rling Mesma

Figure 1: Oxygen Consump on for Four AIP Power Genera on Technologies.

The fuel cell, which is an electrochemical energy converter, offers the greatest potential for stealthy,
submerged operation, both for manned and unmanned platforms, and the rest of the paper will
focus on this AIP technology. Fuel cells convert a fuel and an oxidant directly into electricity by an
electrochemical process, which is, in theory, up to 100% efficient. However, practical limitations
lower the fuel cell's efficiency, typically to between 40% and 65%. The basic fuel cell stack has no
moving parts, can generate electricity silently, and is potentially low maintenance with a long
operational life, depending on design.
There are several types of fuel cell, operating in different temperature regimes, and typically named
according to the type of electrolyte used. Solid oxide fuel cells operate at high temperatures (750-
1000 ºC) using ceramic materials as electrolyte and electrodes. They hold promise for use in utility

17
power and naval applications owing to the possibility of using a hydrocarbon fuel directly by either
internal reformation to hydrogen and carbon dioxide, or by direct oxidation. Molten carbonate fuel
cells operate at around 650 ºC and internal reformation is also possible with these systems.

Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)

There are several alternative configurations for fuel cells, but for submarine propulsion, so-called
"Polymer Electrolyte Membrane" (PEM) fuel cells have attracted the most attention because of
their low operating temperatures (80° Centigrade) and relatively little waste heat. In a PEM device,
pressurized hydrogen gas (H2) enters the cell on the anode side, where a platinum catalyst
decomposes each pair of molecules into four H+ ions and four free electrons. The electrons depart
the anode into the external circuit - the load -as an electric current. Meanwhile, on the cathode
side, each oxygen molecule (O2) is catalytically dissociated into separate atoms, using the electrons
flowing back from the external circuit to complete their outer electron "shells." The polymer
membrane that separates anode and cathode is impervious to electrons, but allows the positively-
charged H+ ions to migrate through the cell toward the negatively charged cathode, where they
combine with the oxygen atoms to form water. Thus, the overall reaction can be represented as
2H2 + O2 => 2H2O (as shown in figure 2), and a major advantage of the fuel-cell approach is that the
only "exhaust" product is pure water. Since a single fuel cell generates only about 0.7 volts DC
(direct current), groups of cells are "stacked" together in series to produce a larger and more useful
output. The stacks can also be arrayed in parallel to increase the amount of current available.

Figure 2: Basic Principle of fuel cell

In the last ten years, Siemens have developed a 34 kW PEM fuel cell for module for AIP (see figure 3)
and a 300 kW assembly of these modules (see figure 4) is being used on the new Class 212
submarine, the first of which was launched early in 2002. The fuel cell alone will power the

18
submarine to 8 kts; for greater speed, the fuel cell is supplemented by a lead-acid battery in a hybrid
configuration. To replace the modules being used in the Class 212 submarine, Siemens are also
developing a 120 kW PEMFC that will have higher volumetric and gravimetric power densities than
the 34 kW modules.

Figure 3: A Siemens PEMFC Module as used on the German 212 AIP Submarine
(Source: HDW).

Figure 4: A Siemens 300 kW PEMFC Stack Assembly as used on the German 212 AIP Submarine
(Copyright Jane's Information Group; Source: HDW)

One of the major advantages of the fuel cell over the traditional battery is that the power capability
of the fuel cell stack can be varied independently of the energy storage capability. When a high
energy storage density is required, it is the properties of the fuel and oxidant sub-systems that
dominate the overall size of the complete fuel cell plant. The most energy-dense fuel in gravimetric
terms is hydrogen, which has a theoretical energy storage density of 33 kWh/kg, compared with
diesel and methanol at around 13.2 and 6.2 kWh/kg respectively. One of the greatest challenges is
to package hydrogen effectively, particularly for minimum volume for submarine vehicles.

19
Hydrogen Storage and Generation Technologies
A fuel cell needs a fuel and an oxidant. The fuel of choice is hydrogen and the oxidant is usually
oxygen. There are many methods by which hydrogen may be stored or generated but not all will be
relevant to submarine applications, for which volume is usually a more important consideration
than weight. Compressed gas storage technology has advanced considerably over the last decade
Advanced, 700 bar, composite cylinders have been demonstrated with a storage capacity of 11 wt%
hydrogen, which is roughly equivalent to 2.5 kWh/kg. This figure was recently raised to 13 wt%. The
size of cylinders available is limited to automotive applications but would be eminently suitable for
unmanned underwater vehicles and swimmer delivery vehicles. The same technology could also be
used for oxygen storage.
The beauty of compressed gas storage is the simplicity of the hydrogen storage sub-system. Using
the pure reactants - hydrogen and oxygen - also means that the only product is pure water. The
disadvantage of compressed gas is the requirement for high performance, power hungry
compressors. The volume taken up by the sub-system is also relatively high. Storing hydrogen as a
cryogenic liquid is assumed to be impractical for underwater applications owing to the extremely
low temperatures required. Hydrogen has a very low boiling point at 1 bar of 20 K (-253oC) and
therefore special insulated containers are required, with attention being paid to the hydrogen lost
due to boil off. Two further methods of hydrogen storage will be considered - reversible
intermetallic metal hydrides and carbon nanofibres. In addition, hydrogen generation by reforming
liquid fuels will also be discussed.

Reversible Metal Hydrides

Certain intermetallic alloys can store and release hydrogen reversibly [2]. These are referred to as
reversible or secondary metal hydrides, to distinguish them from the primary metal hydrides, such
as lithium hydride, that can only release hydrogen by decomposition, either at very high
temperatures or by reaction with water. Many alloys are suitable for storing hydrogen; selecting the
best depends on the precise conditions required.
Reversible metal hydrides are a heavy option but on a volume basis are very competitive, better
than liquid hydrogen itself. Current ambient temperature alloys are capable of reversibly storing up
to 1.8 wt % hydrogen and 0.1 tonne H2/m3 but, unfortunately, the hydride cannot be densely
packed since hydrogen must be able to permeate through the medium. Additionally, the hydriding
process is exothermic such that a heat exchanger is required to cool the alloy on charge and to heat
it on discharge.
Metal hydrides are the safest method for storing hydrogen because the storage containers are filled
with metal hydride and contain virtually no free gas. The pressure in the containers is low (10 to 15
bar) and, because the desorption of hydrogen is endothermic, a rupture of the storage container
will only result in a controlled loss of hydrogen. As this leak continues, the alloy will get
progressively cooler, which will reduce the leakage rate.

20
Howaldtswerke Deutsche Werft (HDW) has developed an air-independent-propulsion (AIP) system
for the Class 212 submarine in which the hydrogen is stored as a metal hydride. The metal hydride is
heated by the fuel cell cooling water system to provide the energy for endothermic
dehydrogenation. The positioning of the hydride storage tanks around the outer hull means that
their considerable mass can further contribute to reducing low-frequency radiated noise. The
hydride storage system is completely maintenance free and can therefore be located outside the
main pressure hull.

Carbon Nanofibres
Carbon nanofibre technology is still in its infancy but the hydrogen storage capability is claimed to
be very high. The inventors, have claimed to have made a new form of carbon that can store up to
three times its own weight in hydrogen, under pressure, at room temperature, but the claim has
been met with some scepticism. Recent work by the inventors has revised the claims downward but
they still report a very respectable 46-68 wt % hydrogen absorption and a release of between 43-58
wt % without heating. The estimated density of the charged fibres is 0.5 g cm-3, giving a volumetric
storage density of 0.29 tonne H2/m3. The predicted specific energy and energy density for a system
using fibres storing 50% hydrogen are 5.7 MWh/T and 4.2 MWh/l respectively, when the weight
and volume of the container is included in the calculations. It should be noted that graphite
nanofibre storage is at a very early stage of development and little is known.

Methanol Reformation
The nearest competitor to carbon nanofibre storage system in terms of energy density is methanol
reformation. For most land-based applications, a fuel cell will use oxygen from the air as the oxidant
as this saves the weight and volume of having to carry an oxygen source. However, for a submarine
application, oxygen must be carried. A disadvantage of a fuel cell system that uses a reformate gas
as opposed to pure hydrogen is that the reforming system will have a higher oxygen demand. This is
because, in addition to operating the fuel cell, oxygen is also required to reform the liquid fuel into
hydrogen, either for partial oxidation reforming or to burn a small proportion of the fuel or off-gas
to provide the heat for steam reformation. This extra oxygen requirement must be factored into any
calculations. A further complication of reforming systems is that carbon dioxide is also produced as
a by-product of the reaction and this needs to be stored or disposed of safely and discretely.
Liquid fuels, such as methanol and diesel, have the advantages that they are readily available, may
be stored in tanks and have a high energy density. Often, these advantages outweigh the
complications introduced by a reformer. Carbon monoxide is a potential by-product of the
reformation process. This is a reversible poison for the platinum catalyst used in PEM fuel cells and
therefore purification of the gas is required before it is fed to the fuel cell.
A steam reforming system suitable for a submarine needs might comprise:
n a storage vessel for methanol,

21
 n a storage vessel for oxygen,
n a steam reformer assembly,
n a gas purification stage,
n a CO2 handling system.
The CO2 produced during reforming must be stored on board the submarine or discharged into the
sea with a minimum signature and energy loss. Carbon dioxide has a high solubility in water and, if
necessary, could be discharged without producing bubbles by pre-dissolving the gas.
Methanol is a liquid at room temperature and could be stored in tanks. The methanol will be
consumed as it is used by the fuel cell, and a hard conformal tank would require compensation to
accommodate the changing volume to prevent it collapsing. Direct water contact with methanol is
unacceptable because the two are miscible. External storage of methanol in soft conformal bags is a
possibility. The bags would be fabricated from methanol-resistant material and, during operation,
the seawater would naturally displace the consumed methanol without coming into contact with it.
Methanol is a toxic, flammable liquid that burns without a flame but is easily contained and
therefore, if the system is correctly designed, it should not pose a safety hazard. A methanol
reformer for submarine applications is being developed under HDW sponsorship. There is also
considerable interest in methanol reformer systems for use in cars and buses.

Diesel Reformation
The most abundant fuels used in the world are derived from crude oil. Crude oils are complex
mixtures consisting primarily of hydrocarbons and other compounds containing sulphur, nitrogen,
oxygen and trace metals. The principal fuels are made by fractional distillation of the crude
petroleum. Diesel fuel has very high volumetric and gravimetric energy densities (see Table 1).
Both diesel and kerosene have more than double the energy density of methanol. Unfortunately,
the reformation of diesel is more technically difficult than reformation of methanol, and the overall
chemical to electrical conversion efficiency of the fuel is only likely to be about 30%, compared with
methanol at 55-60%. Diesel also contains appreciable quantities of sulphur compounds, which are
poisonous to the conventional reformer and fuel cell catalysts. The much higher temperatures
required for diesel reformation add to the complexity of a reformer system and reduce the
conversion efficiency compared with methanol. The gas clean-up process is more complicated than
for methanol since hydrogen sulphide, as well as carbon monoxide, must be removed. The main
advantages of diesel fuel include:
n excellent volumetric and gravimetric energy densities,
n current military logistic fuel,
n extensive distribution network.

22
 Table 1: Proper es of Methanol, Kerosene and Diesel
Methonol Kerosene Diesel
Formula CH3OH C9.3H18.1 C13.9H22.6
Flash point 11 43 52
Wt percent H2 produced 18.8 32.5 31.4
Vol. Density (kg H2/L) 0.071 0.266 0.267
Calorific energy density (kWh/L) 3.95 10.48 10.51
Calorific specific energy (kWh/kg) 4.97 12.8 12.37
Fuel Volume for 1MWH (m³⁾ 0.50 0.22 0.23
Fuel weight for 1MWH (T) 0.40 0.18 0.19

Its main disadvantages are:

n requires desulphurization,
n requires high pressure and temperature,
n reformer exhaust gas by-product must be managed (stored or discharged),
n higher oxygen demand than H2 storage systems.
Cleaner hydrocarbon fuels such as kerosene or gasoline could be reformed. Kerosene is a common
commercial and strategic distillate used in a broad range of applications from lanterns to jet fuel. It
is less volatile than gasoline and has a higher flash point to provide greater safety in handling. It has
a much lower sulphur content than diesel fuel and can be reformed more easily.

Direct Oxidation of Liquid Fuels

Alcohols and hydrocarbons can, in theory, act as fuel for a fuel cell and be directly oxidized like
hydrogen. One of the commonest fuels of this type is methanol, which is used in the Direct
Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC).
The direct oxidation of large hydrocarbons such as decane, petroleum and sulphur-free diesel has
been demonstrated in high temperature (750-1,000 °C) solid oxide fuel cells, which would yield a
high energy, liquid fuel. However, the high operating temperature, and the need to dispose of
carbon dioxide and other detectable by-products, makes these systems unsuitable for covert
operations.

Oxygen Storage
All AIP power generation options require the storage and consumption of oxygen. Primary systems
store the O2 in either its gaseous or liquid form. Gaseous storage requires the use of large heavy
tanks and, while the use of composite materials would reduce the weight penalty, the cost could be
excessive for large platforms but acceptable for smaller ones. Composite cylinders would still suffer

23
from a relatively low volumetric performance. LOX systems include the cryogenic storage of O2 in
subcritical and supercritical form. Subcritical O2, which appears to be the most commonly used
technique, is maintained in the liquid state at extremely low temperatures (< -118.6 oC) and at high
pressures (3- 55 bar). It is also possible to store O2 as a supercritical fluid (> -118 oC, >50 bar), which
removes the tendency to slosh. This could be advantageous in a submarine where trim may be
affected by the changing distribution of liquid, although internal baffles could be used. Secondary
systems provide O2 through chemical reaction. The alternatives are chlorate candles, superoxide
and hydrogen peroxide. Primary storage in liquid form is the optimum choice.
Certainly AIP will significantly increase submerged endurance and reduce detectability. The longer
underwater duration will ensure that conventional AIP vessels require new methods for supplying
crew's oxygen; harnessing the boil-off of the oxidant supply for the AIP system would be a
convenient and efficient method of achieving this. Each crew member requires about 1 kg of O2 per
day for life support. Thus the mass of oxygen required for a 50-day patrol with a crew of 50 is about
2.5 tonnes. It is likely that LOX will remain the oxidant of choice for manned platforms, where
oxygen is required for the crew. For unmanned systems, hydrogen peroxide is being evaluated as a
serious alternative.

Technical Issues and Integration

Oxygen storage is a mature technology being accepted by several navies as the favoured option for
storing the oxygen for AIP systems. In contrast, hydrogen storage technologies are at an early stage
of development with new systems being proposed, so the system of choice is not yet identified. The
major advantages and disadvantages of the four main hydrogen storage or generation systems are
summarised in table 2.

Table 2: Comparison of Hydrogen Storage and Genera on Technologies

Technology Advantage Disadvantage

Metal hydride Good volumetric density Pure hydrogen Poor gravimetric density
liberated Ambient temperature opera on
Proven technology of suitable scale
Carbon nanofibres Excellent gravimetric and volumetric Technology not proven
energy densi es claimed Pure hydrogen Cycling ability unknown
liberated Ambient temperature opera on
Methanol Good gravimetric and volumetric energy Requires reforming High oxygen
reforma on densi es No sulphur produced Liquid fuel demand CO2 disposal
Diesel reforma on Very good gravimetric and volumetric Requires reforming Sulphur impuri es
energy densi es Logis c fuel Inexpensive Higher oxygen demand High temperatures
required CO2 and other emissions
Technically difficult/not proven

24
CONCLUSIONS
For covert littoral operations, submerged platforms have a key role, and stealthy propulsive and
surveillance power is required. This is best provided by an integrated, hybrid, air-independent
propulsion system in a full electric architecture. AIP will be valuable primarily as a low-speed, long-
endurance adjunct to the under- water performance of conventional submarines. Their tactical
flexibility, their small size, their inherent stealth - and the novel operational paradigms AIP
submarines introduce to undersea warfare - will make these new boats a dangerous threat to
submariners accustomed to nuclear- or conventionally diesel-powered adversaries.
Of the current AIP power generator options, the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is
the stealthiest, fuel efficient, option for all sizes of platform. The ideal fuel option would be
hydrogen stored in a reversible metal hydride, or in compressed form using an advanced, high
performance, composite cylinder. If it really works, carbon nanofibre hydrogen storage could
revolutionize fuel cell exploitation. The ideal oxidant, particularly for large platforms, is oxygen,
stored as a liquid. For smaller platforms, hydrogen peroxide looks a more attractive oxidant, and a
metal anode, such as aluminium, magnesium or lithium, might be a more attractive fuel than
hydrogen.

References
[1] Dough Thomas, Submarine Developments- Air Independent Propulsions, Volume 3, Number
4 (Winter 2008) Canadian Naval Review.
[2] Norman Jolin, Future Submarine Capabilities-Some Considerations, Volume 11, Number 1
(2015) Canadian Naval Review.
[3] Dr. Carlo Kopp, Air Independent Propulsion- Now a Necessity, Defence Today
[4] Mepsted G, Green K, Lakeman B, Slee R, Jones P, Moore J and Adcock P. Man-Portable Fuel Cell
System. Part I: Fuel Cell Stacks and Integration,. J Defence Science, 4 441 (1999).
[5] Sattler G. Journal of Power Sources, 71 144 (1998).
[6] Chambers A, Park C, Baker R T K and Rodriguez N M. J. Phys Chem B, 102(22) 4253 (1998).
[7] Dr J B Lakeman, Dr D J Browning The Role of Fuel Cells in the Supply of Silent Power for
Operations in Littoral Waters, RTO AVT Symposium on "Novel Vehicle Concepts and Emerging
Vehicle Technologies”
[8] www.chinfo.navy.mil/navpalib/cno/n87/usw/issue_13/propulsion
[9] www.ijert.org

25
 article

3 LESSONS FROM SUBMARINE DESIGN AND

CONSTRUCTION PROGRAMMES WORLDWIDE

Capt Amit Ray, PhD.

Abstract
Design and construction of submarines are among the most challenging engineering projects by
any standards. With increasing sophistication of technology and cost, coupled with reducing scale
of submarine construction programmes in most countries, there is increasing emphasis on
improving processes and practices. This paper reviews the various approaches adopted by
submarine building nations in recent design and construction projects. Approaches adopted in
contemporary construction programmes of the US, UK, Russia, France and Australia have been
assessed. Aspects of programme management, technology induction, design process, and
equipment development are discussed. Lessons learnt from construction practices and timelines
achieved have been compiled and analysed.

Introduction
Submarines, particularly nuclear-powered strategic platforms, are among the most complex
engineering creations in the world. While the number of countries operating submarines
worldwide has been steadily increasing, the capability of submarine design and construction is
limited to a handful of nations. Even for nations with established capabilities, the number of
submarines being built has reduced over the last three decades. While the focus on new technology
has been steady, there has been increasing emphasis on costing and efficient programme
management. Consequently, there have been several studies and reports on recent submarine
construction programmes in the USA, UK, France, Australia and China. The approaches adopted
and evolved by different nations for various aspects of their submarine programmes offer valuable
insights into the options available and lessons learnt.

Programme Management
The world's first strategic submarine construction project was the Polaris programme of the UK,
which set several new benchmarks in project management. The nuclear propulsion system had
already been proven, for the first time in the world, by the attack submarine programme starting
with Nautilus, commissioned in 1954. In the wake of the Soviet Union's achievements in space, the
US accorded the topmost national priority to its sea-based strategic deterrence programme, which

26
was given extraordinary authority in order to ensure very stringent timelines1. In spite of the
numerous first-time technologies involved, the programme took just four years, exactly as per
schedule from inception (in Nov 1955) till delivery of the first SSBN (USS George Washington
commissioned in 1959). The programme management of the 'Special Projects Office' though
manned by naval personnel, was characterised by independence from the existing hierarchy,
autonomy in financial powers and direct lines of communication with all stakeholders.
The Polaris programme of the UK was also formed on similar lines, with the 'Chief Polaris Executive'
heading an independent organisation with its own design team, procurement team and weapons
team. The UK Polaris programme benefited immensely from a unique and close working
relationship with the USA. The nuclear reactor of the first SSN, the HMS Dreadnought had been
2
obtained from the USA . The Polaris missile system installed in the SSBNs, starting with Resolution
(commissioned 1967) was also from the USA. Access to these technologies enabled early readiness
of the first UK SSBN, just four years after the programme was initiated3.
While detailed information of the first Soviet, French or Chinese SSBN programmes are not
available to the same extent (as the US and UK programmes), it is certain that similar focused efforts
would have resulted in their first boats being delivered in 1960, 1971 and 1983, respectively.
Over the next few decades, the SSBN programme management has gradually merged with the
acquisition organisations of respective navies. However, the national importance of the strategic
submarine programmes is now well established. The design and construction programmes in the
USA have strived to not only ensure timely and cost-effective replacement of obsolescent
platforms, but also enable retention of national submarine design and construction capability, for
both SSNs and SSBNs4. This concern for keeping alive design capabilities has been observed in the
UK as well, in spite of depletion in options for submarine construction yards.
People are the key. Both the Astute and the Collins class submarine construction programmes that
were faced with several issues, recognised the lack of continuity of personnel in technical and
management roles as a key problem. On the contrary, part of the success of the Virginia program
was due to the strong leadership and management in both the Navy and at the shipbuilders,
particularly due to identifying and grooming of future leaders5.
Further, it is essential to utilise and closely involve the entire gamut of expertise available for
technology induction, acquisition, maintenance, operations, construction and design at all stages
of the programme. Co-location of appropriate organisations was found to be an essential factor in
ensuring such participation.

1
Spinardi, G., From Polaris to Trident: the Development of US Fleet Ballistic Missile Technology, Cambridge, 1994, p. 38
2
Hennessy, P. and Jinks, J., The Silent Deep: The Royal Navy Submarine Service since 1945, Penguin, 2016.
3
Moore, J.E., The Impact of Polaris: The origins of Britain's seaborne nuclear deterrent, Richard Netherwood, 1999.
4
Schank, J., et al., Sustaining U.S. Nuclear Submarine Design Capabilities, RAND, 2007.
5
Schank, J.F., et al., Learning from Experience, Volume II – Lessons from the US Navy's Ohio, Seawolf and Virginia Submarine Programs,
RAND, 2011, p.91.

27
Technology Induction
Induction of cutting-edge technology has been the primary objective in evolving from one design to
the next. Technology has been driven by operational imperatives such as greater payload, longer
range and endurance, greater operational flexibility in terms of speed and depth, and better stealth
capabilities. The years of the Cold War saw tremendous advances in submarine technology6.
Aspects such as hull form, propulsion, silencing, sonars and navigation saw radical improvements.
Many of these technologies could be tried out on prototype submarines because of the funding
available in those years of heightened tension and maximum priority. In the US, these included
nuclear propulsion (as well as various types and configurations of reactors) tried out in the USS
Nautilus, the Glenard P. Lipscomb, the Narwhal and the Triton. Successive innovations in drag
7
reduction and manoeuvrability were tried out on various generations of the Albacore (1960-1970)
by the US and on the Beluga (1983-1990) by the USSR.
An example of technology induction is pumpjets, the current generation of low-noise propulsors.
The pumpjet was first tested on the UK SSN HMS Churchill in 1970 and implemented on the
Trafalgar class SSNs, which entered service from 1978. The US evaluated a pumpjet first on the USS
Cheyenne (SSN 673- Los Angeles class) and adopted it thereafter for the Seawolf class (entered
8
service in 1997) . The Soviet/ Russian Navy first undertook trials on a Project 877 (Kilo) submarine,
B-871, from 20049. Pumpjets have now been implemented on all modern SSBNs (as well as most
SSNs) of the US, UK, French and Russian navies.
The multiplicity of submarine classes designed and produced in the USSR offered much greater
scope for new technology induction. The path-breaking automation, liquid metal reactors and
Titanium hull of the Alfa class (Project 705) that served during 1977-1981 shook up US submarine
design. Similarly, the silencing levels achieved by the Akula (Project 971) that entered service in
1984 drove US and UK submarine designs towards even lower noise levels.
With the end of the Cold War, the high expenditure and cost of programmes such as the Seawolf
class SSN of the US could no longer be sustained. In hindsight, the Seawolf class suffered from too
great a proportion of new, unproven technologies10. The ideal mix of proven and new technologies
in a design appears to be somewhat near 80:20 ratio, but this is neither sacrosanct nor easily
amenable to quantification.
Governmental Defence R&D organisations were at the core of technology development for
submarine applications. Iconic organisations such as the David Taylor Research Center in the USA,
the Admiralty Marine Technology Establishment in UK and the Krylov Ship Research Institute in
6
Polmar, N. and Moore, K., Cold War Submarines: The Design and Construction of US and Soviet Submarines, Potomac Books, 2003.
7
Jackson, H.A., 'The Influence of the USS Albacore on Submarine Design', RINA Symposium on Naval Submarines 4, May 1993.
8
Polmar and Moore, p.309.
9
Apalkov, Yu.V., Podvodniye Lodki VMF SSSR - Spravochnik (Submarines of the Soviet Navy - Handbook), Galea Print, St. Petersburg, 2006.
10
Schank, J.F., et al., Learning from Experience, Volume II, p.53.

28
Russia were the path blazers in marine hydrodynamics and a variety of other technologies for
propulsion, acoustics and stealth that were specifically developed for submarines. Many of the test
facilities created were conceived and developed to unique proportions in these laboratories, such
as cavitation tunnels, signature measurement chambers, hyperbaric chambers, large-scale
unmanned models and acoustic ranging basins. In the West, responsibility for new technology
development gradually shifted from captive government R&D facilities to academia and industry.
The Chinese nuclear submarine programme, which originated in 1959, was nowhere as smooth as
those of the Western powers. A series of challenges were faced in technological aspects of
submarine construction, nuclear power plant and development of the various sub-systems of the
missile complex, which took decades to overcome, culminating in the first Chinese SSN being
11
commissioned in 1974 .
For the replacement to the Ohio class SSBN, of which the lead boat is planned to be inducted in
2031, technology development work started as early as 2012. The technology development phase
includes research and investment in certain key areas such as electric drive, X-shaped stern and
propulsion shaft research12.

Design Process
The traditional submarine design process has been sequential, with successive stages of design
involving greater level of definition, and greater time and effort. The process has also been
described as cyclic, with every iteration leading to better definition (reduction in assumptions),
leading to refinement in characteristics.
Till the 1960s, submarine design capability was the responsibility of the Navy or specialised
governmental design bureaus. Gradually, detailed design capability was built up in the shipyards
building the submarines. Further, since the 1970s, the in-house design capability of the US and UK
navies were gradually diluted. Correspondingly, the design capability of shipyards (such as BAE
Systems-Barrow in UK, Electric Boat in USA) and private firms (such as IKL in Germany, QinetiQ in
UK) were gradually consolidated. Some firms such as Kockums in Sweden and RDM in the
Netherlands suffered mergers or dissolution due to dwindling business volumes.
The dilution of Navy design capability, such as pausing inductions to the Royal Corps of Naval
Constructors in the UK13, had negative impact on the viability and progress of subsequent projects.
The initial delay in the Astute SSN programme was partly attributed to this loss of in-house design
expertise.

11
Lewis, J.W. and Litai, X., China's Strategic Seapower: The Politics of Force Modernization in the Nuclear Age, Stanford University Press,
1994.
12
Osborne, K., 'Navy Ohio Replacement Submarine Starts Early Construction', http://www.defensetech.org/2013/10/24/ohio-
replacement-submarine-starts-early-construction/ , Accessed Sep 16.
13
Schank, J.F., et al., Learning from Experience, Volume III – Lessons from the United Kingdom's Astute Submarine Program, RAND, 2011,
p.14.

29
Splitting the design responsibility between agencies, particularly between competitors, is fraught
with risks. This happened in case of the Seawolf class SSN, where the initial design responsibility
was with Electric Boat. Detailed design was split between Electric Boat as well as Newport News, for
construction in parallel at both the yards14. Similar disconnect between the design team of GEC
Marconi for Astute and the Barrow shipyard resulted in delays and difficulties15.
After the expensive and short-lived Seawolf class, as part of efforts to reduce time and cost of
construction, the concept of 'Integrated Product and Process Development' (IPPD) was adopted for
16
the Virginia class SSN . This involved multi-disciplinary teams, responsible for each zone of the
submarine, across all stages of design. Each team was composed of specialists from the Navy as well
as the shipyard (Electric Boat). This included not only naval architects (designers) but also
operators, equipment suppliers, those in the production trades, cost engineers, purchasers,
engineering analysts, testers and quality assurers.
Apart from the composition of these teams, another new feature of the IPPD approach was the
compression of design stages into a seamless process, unlike the traditional process of design
stages with gaps in-between. The teams progressively developed the design from the definition of
requirements till issue of construction drawings in the following stages:-
(a) Platform characteristics are defined.
(b) 2-D and 3-D drawings of each area are prepared and systems modelled to evaluate
arrangements.
(c) Mock-up drawings are created for limited areas and after finalising design configuration,
'intelligent models' created incorporating materials and parts details.
(d) Drawings are produced and manufacturing support data is generated
(e) Build strategy finalised and drawings are issued for construction
Along with each “Major Area Team” responsible in the IPPD for each physical area (such as Engine
Room, Sail, Accommodation, etc.), there was a set of “System Integration Teams” responsible for
systems (such as electrical network, ventilation, hydraulics) distributed across the submarine.
It is a common lesson from many programmes that design changes must be minimised once
construction has commenced. Delays in construction may suggest opportunities to make
improvements, but these temptations should be determinedly resisted. Three years into the
Virginia programme, the initial requirements remained unchanged despite challenges. In each
case, the Navy programme manager cited cost control as the dominant program requirement in
denying all proposed changes.

14
Schank, J.F., et al., Learning from Experience, Volume II, p.47, 49.
15
Schank, J.F., et al., Learning from Experience, Volume III, p.34, 40, 65.
16
Schank, J., et al., Sustaining U.S. Nuclear Submarine Design Capabilities, p.15.

30
Physical mock-ups that were once standard during the detailed design process, appear redundant
with implementation of 3D-CAD models. However, it is noteworthy that even in the Virginia class,
which was largely designed using CAD, partial physical models were still necessary and did prove
useful17.
Submarines are intricate designs and the fine margins available in weight, stability, power, heat load
and other design margins need to be carefully managed and monitored. The detailed design,
18
construction and operations of a new submarine may begin to consume its initial design margins .
These need to be closely examined, since without adequate margins, it may be difficult or
impossible to modernize the equipment or undertake missions over the entire operational life of a
submarine class.

Roles of Agencies
The reduction in government funding after the Cold War led to scaling down of Defence R&D
laboratories and facilities in not only Russia but also in USA and UK. Various R&D labs in UK were
brought under a single Defence Research Agency in 1991, further integrated into the Defence
Evaluation Research Agency (DERA) in 1995. In 2001, the DERA was split into two separate
organisations: the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory (“Dstl”) and Qinetiq. The
government remained a part-owner in newly created organisations such as Qinetiq in UK and DCNS
in France.
An offshoot of the scaling down of captive Defence R&D was the increasing reliance on private
engineering firms for consultancy in specific areas such as propulsion, signature management, or
various systems integration. There was also a consolidation of private firms within larger
conglomerates. Examples are the incorporation of Electric Boat Yard within General Dynamics and
the acquisition of Barrow shipyard (after many changes in its name and ownership) within BAE
Systems.
At the beginning of the UK's Astute programme, in a quest to lower costs, the significant MoD
presence in design and on-site overseeing was cut down assuming that the private sector would
assume technical as well as management responsibility. The MoD advocated an “eyes on, hands
off” approach. The 'prime contractor' was supposed to be the design authority, right from concept
design, based on extraordinarily detailed performance specifications prepared by the MoD.
However, due to issues faced in the first three boats of the Astute class, the MoD reclaimed its role
19
of design authority for boats 4 to 7 in the series .
The number of shipyards capable of building submarines has steadily reduced in the US, UK and
Russia. Maintaining even two shipyards capable of nuclear submarine construction was a challenge
for the USA in the post-Cold War years, while for the UK there was no choice but to rely only on one
yard.
17
Schank, J.F., et al., Learning from Experience, Volume II, p.85.
18
Schank, J.F., et al., Learning from Experience, Volume I – Lessons from the Submarine Programs of the United States, United Kingdom
and Australia, RAND, 2011, p.41.
19
Schank, J.F., et al., Learning from Experience, Volume III, p.15, 23. Schank, J.F., et al., Learning from Experience, Volume III, p.15, 23.

31
Equipment Development
The design and development of customised equipment is an essential pre-requisite for the
construction and indeed, for finalisation of the design itself. The process is closely linked to
technology induction and as mentioned earlier, the balance between proven and unproven
technologies is hard to strike. Other than in the Soviet Union, most equipment development for
submarines has been in the private sector, relying upon a plethora of vendors ranging from large
corporations to small enterprises.
The Navy or the shipbuilder's role is to specify the performance requirements, the limiting
characteristics and the quality parameters. Sustained efforts are required to promote
developmental efforts by private firms, and prototype testing is generally essential. The long-lead
developmental and production time for complex and major equipment are often defining
parameters in the construction programme. These include the propulsion plant, the combat
systems and the weapons complex.
About 58 unique suppliers were identified by US yards engaged in Virginia class construction20. The
key suppliers of equipment are those significantly involved in design as well as production of
components. For example, such capability for nuclear reactors was built up in the UK by Rolls Royce
in association with a few other firms that formed 'Rolls Royce and Associates' in 1959. This
conglomerate was the recipient of submarine nuclear reactor technology from Westinghouse of
the USA, facilitated by close governmental and naval links between UK and USA21.
Bulk orders and the assurance of repeat orders are an essential incentive for engaging capable firms
in equipment development. Series production enables long-term partnerships, but submarine
production runs have reduced worldwide. A number of vendors suffered losses in the USA when
the planned production run of the Seawolf SSN was curtailed from the initially planned 29 boats to
just three actually built.
Another example of the effect of long gap between successive designs was seen in the Astute. In the
design of the Astute, it was assumed that many equipment of the earlier Vanguard SSBNs and
Trafalgar SSNs would be used. However, most of this legacy equipment was no longer available
since many approved vendors had left the industry when orders stopped. Re-establishing suitable
vendors caused further delays in the readiness of Astute.
The proportion of “Buyer Furnished Equipment” (BFE) or “Government Furnished Equipment”
(GFE) was also sought to be reduced in the Astute programme to cut costs, in the belief that the
prime contractor could reduce costs through competition for various equipment. Consolidation of
vendor base is considered to be helpful in improving supply chain management. For the Astute
programme, ten key vendors supply 70 per cent of the material value of the submarines. Quarterly
meetings are held to assess the health of these key suppliers and the MoD and prime contractor
work with them to provide an overview of future programmes and challenges faced22.

20
Schank, J., et al., Sustaining U.S. Nuclear Submarine Design Capabilities, p.101.
21
Hennessy and Jinks, p. 182.
22
Schank, J.F., et al., Learning from Experience, Volume III, p.48.

32
While the thrust on indigenisation must remain the top priority, the need to source certain key
equipment from foreign suppliers may remain. Assurance of the reliability and economic viability of
such suppliers during the operational life of the submarine is essential. The Collins class faced
serious problems in equipment such as diesel engines and its combat systems due to foreign
suppliers providing inadequate support23.

Construction Approach
The classical approach of submarine construction involves complete joining of structural sections
before commencing piping or cabling across the boat. With submarine construction inevitably
occurring in cylindrical / conical blocks, there has been progressive increase in the quantum of
cabling, piping and equipment installation before these blocks are joined. A major step forward has
been off-boat system integration and testing, and rolling-in of systems rather than equipment into
the structural blocks.
This 'modular construction' concept was first implemented at a large scale in the US on the Ohio
class SSBNs by Electric Boat. Interior systems were built as modules and slid into place in cylindrical
sections. A similar approach had been adopted earlier for construction of SSKs in Sweden and was
subsequently adopted for the Astute class construction in the UK. Even for the Collins class of
Australia, large modules of the submarines came from multiple shipyards, including the Kockums
yard in Sweden.
In the Virginia class (and later, the Astute class) all major systems and equipment were tested off the
submarine before their installation and integration. Separate test facilities created for machinery
systems and even combat systems enabled discovery and correction of problems in conducive
environment off the boat.
The advances in modular construction are reflected in the level of outfitting completed before
joining structural sections. The first Virginia-class boat was 81 percent complete when the shipyard
closed the pressure hull, compared with 57 percent for the Seawolf and 33 percent for the Los
Angeles24. As the Virginia program progressed, the size of the modules was increased and the
number of separate modules was reduced from ten to four.
In the gap of just eight years between start of construction of the last / first boat of successive
classes of submarines at Barrow shipyard in the UK, crucial knowledge about managing the build
process and ensuring quality of construction significantly depleted. This gap also resulted in
production practices lagging behind advances made in the corresponding period in Electric Boat in
the US.

23
Schank, J.F., et al., Learning from Experience, Volume IV – Lessons from the Australia's Collins Submarine Program, RAND, 2011, p.49.
24
Schank, J.F., et al., Learning from Experience, Volume II, p.80.

33
Use of 3D CAD environment for construction was introduced in the US for the Ohio class and in the
UK for the Astute class. There were many teething troubles experienced due to this transition.
There was conflict between the details in the drawings and the previous practices of shipyards.
Learning how to develop CAD models was a challenge for the designers and learning how to read
and implement them was a challenge for the shipyards. It took several years for the production
drawings to be optimised to suit production requirements.
The term 'concurrent design' is often used to refer to the process of design overlapping with the
construction of the lead boat of the class. The Seawolf class construction started when only about 5
percent of the construction drawings were completed. For Virginia, this figure was improved by ten
times to 50 percent25. In the case of the Australian Collins class, construction of the hull began in
26
1989, when only about 10 percent of the construction drawings were complete . In case of the
Astute as well, construction started before the detailed drawings were completed, which resulted
subsequently in significant rework, cost and delay. Based on these experiences, it is recommended
that the electronic product model should be approximately 80 percent or more complete when
27
construction begins .
An essential feature enabling timely delivery of successive Virgina class boats generally within 8 to
12 months of each other was the comprehensive Integrated Master Schedule (IMS), with a very
high level of detail. This schedule was linked to imposition of discipline in procurement and delivery
of equipment for installation, both contractor-furnished and buyer-furnished.
For better performance in schedule adherence as well as cost accounting, the Virginia programme
adopted an Earned Value Management System (EVMS) for programme performance
measurement. Earlier methods compared planned results with actual results, whereas EVMS
integrated cost, schedule and scope to help the programme manager to identify and control
28
problems through a series of metrics reviewed in weekly meetings . Construction metrics covered
the complete range of ship construction activities down to the ship system level.
Oversight of construction by the MoD/ Navy prior to the Astute consisted of about 50 personnel,
which was drastically cut down to only 3. Based on lessons learnt mid-way through the programme,
increased involvement of MoD was reflected in the oversight presence being increased to more
than 30 personnel in the Barrow shipyard. The role of overseers is not limited to quality control or
providing feedback on status of the programme, but also to interact with designers and builders
and help to arrive at decisions on changes to contract requirements.
Testing prior commissioning is a crucial part of the construction process. Prior to Astute, the UK
Royal Navy/ MoD had been responsible for testing and commissioning a new submarine. For the
first time in Astute, this responsibility was transferred to the prime contractor, which was not
prepared for the same. Rectification required a new organisation with cooperation between key
submarine suppliers and the Navy29.

25
Schank, J.F., et al., Learning from Experience, Volume II, p.82.
26
Schank, J.F., et al., Learning from Experience, Volume IV, p.23.
27
Schank, J.F., et al., Learning from Experience, Volume III, p.72.
28
Schank, J.F., et al., Learning from Experience, Volume II, p.82.
29
Schank, J.F., et al., Learning from Experience, Volume III, p.46.

34
Project Timelines
Design and construction timelines for SSNs and SSBNs span decades. The duration of the submarine
design process (from concept design to completion of workshop design) is about 12 to 13 years.
However, this duration may vary in the range of 10 to 15 years depending on factors such as
governmental approvals, shipyard loading and naval requirements.
The first Chinese SSBN, boat 406 of the Type 092 (Xia class), was laid down in 1978 at Huludao
shipyard; she was completed in 1981. After fitting out and trials, she finally became active in 1987.
The current Chinese SSBN class is the Type 094 (Jin class). The first boat became operational in 2010,
three were operational in 2013, and four in 201530.
Timelines for construction of recent classes of SSNs and SSBNs worldwide are shown in Figure 1.
The construction process, from laying down till acceptance by the navy, takes about 7 to 10 years.
However, examples of projects that have taken longer are the Yuri Dolgorukiy (Borei class SSBN) and
the Severodvinsk (Yasen class SSN). Their first-of-class boats took more than 16 / 20 years
(respectively), with durations expected to reduce to about 6-10 years for subsequent boats. Since
the processes of design and construction usually overlap to varying extents, the total period of
design and construction from beginning of concept design till induction into service
(commissioning) is about 12 years for Virginia and 16 years for Astute first-of-class boats.

20

15
Years

10

0
Virginia Astute Borei Yasen
Figure : Duration for construction of first-of-class: Recent nuclear submarines

30
Fisher, Richard D, Jr., 'US upgrades assessment of China's Type 094 SSBN fleet'. IHS Jane's 360. Accessed October 2015.

35
The construction duration for successive boats of the same class ideally should show the positive
effects of a 'learning curve'. However, this is not always seen. For the first eight boats of the US Ohio
class in the 1980s, the delivery interval was 8 to 10 months. For the current UK SSBN (Vanguard)
class of four boats delivered in the 1990s, gap between commissioning of successive boats actually
increased from 17 months to 23 months, to 36 months. For the Virginia class, the gap has been
varying from 4 to 23 months, with an average periodicity of about 12 months.
As the existing Ohio submarines reach the end of their extended service life of 43 years, the first
31
Ohio replacement submarine was planned to enter service in 2029 . It was announced in July 2016
that the lead boat will be named Columbia. With a delay of about two years as on date, the
scheduled developmental, design and construction timelines for the next generation US SSBN,
32
spanning 19 years, are as follows :-
n 2012: Commenced research, development, test, and evaluation
n 2017: Start detailed design and advanced procurement of critical components
n 2021: Commence construction of lead boat (build period: 7 years)
n 2028: Commence three-year strategic certification period for lead boat
n 2031: Lead boat commences active strategic sea-service.

Recommendations
Salient lessons for attention that may be highlighted for indigenous submarine design and
construction programmes are as follows:-
n It is essential for the MoD and the Navy to be an intelligent and informed customer, and not
delegate design or oversight authority.
n Contract structures need to include appropriate provisions to absorb or tackle the technical
risks inherent in such long-duration complex endeavours. Incentives for improvements
need to be built-in and risks need to be shared between both parties.
n A single agency for detailed design, closely integrated and familiar with the production yard,
is essential for an effective design and efficient resolution of issues during construction.
n The design process must include and take inputs from builders, maintainers, operators and
major equipment developers. The goal of design and construction should be not only
achievement of specifications but also cost-effectiveness after its delivery, with balanced
emphasis on ease of maintenance and operation.

31
O'Rourke, R., 'Navy SSBN(X) Ballistic Missile Submarine Program: Background and Issues for Congress', Congressional Research Service
Report for Congress, April 22, 2011.
32
Osborne, K., 'Navy Finishes Specs for Future Nuclear Sub', http://www.dodbuzz.com/2014/04/08/navy-finishes-blueprints-for-future-
nuclear-sub/, Accessed Sep 16.

36
n Successive designs should aim towards enhancing operational availability and avoiding mid-
life refuelling.
n The majority of design drawings (ideally at least 80 percent of the 3D CAD model) must be
completed before construction begins.
n Responsibilities of supply chain management need to be adequately staffed and given due
importance since they greatly affect the progress of the programme.
n Selection of government-furnished and contractor-supplied equipment need to be
judiciously done based on the strengths and capabilities of each.
n Development of strategic capabilities in the industrial base as well the MoD and Navy is a
long term effort that needs to be nurtured to ensure retention of skills and institutional
experience. Undue gaps between design / construction programmes or switching industrial
partners can lead to serious attrition in specialised capabilities.
n Changes during construction need to be minimised and discouraged.
n Quality and adequate numbers of key personnel are essential for the success of every
complex programme. Grooming future programme managers and technical experts within
the Navy and the industrial base are essential. Continuity of personnel in ongoing
programmes is also essential for ploughing in lessons over decades-long programmes.

37
Author's Biodata
Captain Amit Ray is a Naval Architect from the 10th Naval Engineering
Course.

His academic qualifications are B.Tech. (Hons.) from CUSAT, PG DIIT from IIT
Delhi, M.Tech. (Ocean Engineering & Naval Arch.) from IIT Kharagpur and
Ph.D. (Submarine Hydrodynamics) from IIT Delhi. His awards include the
Director's Gold Medal from IIT Kharagpur (2006) and Medal of Distinction
from Royal Institution of Naval Architects, UK (2010).

He has served twice in Naval Dockyard Visakhapatnam as AMFAB, MFAB and

DGM(Hull). He has served at IIT Delhi as faculty, and at IHQ MoD(Navy) in
Directorate of Naval Architecture and Directorate of Naval Design (SDG). He
is presently serving in Ship Building Centre, Visakhapatnam.

38
 article

4 AIR REGENERATION PROCESSES ONBOARD

UNDERWATER PLATFORM
BY – Devinder Singh Pannu Sc 'É' DND(SDG)
Lt Cdr H M Pradeep DDND(SDG)

Introduction
1. Keeping air quality and atmosphere composition into appropriate ranges is one of the most
critical problems of a submarine. Oxygen consumption and Carbon Dioxide generation
represent the main threats, that all subs in the world have to manage and monitor
carefully. Since the advent of nuclear-powered submarines with their ability to travel long
periods submerged without surfacing, while generating vast amounts of electricity for
shipboard use, replenishment of oxygen in the closed atmosphere and removal of air impurities
has been a critical requirement and a complex technological and engineering task. Air
Regeneration in Submarines was introduced towards the end of World War II and was limited to
the use of soda lime for removal of carbon dioxide and oxygen candles for regeneration of
oxygen. The next major advances came with the advent of nuclear-powered submarines. These
included the development of regenerative and, sometimes, energy-intensive processes for
comprehensive atmosphere revitalization. With the present development of conventional
submarines using air-independent propulsion there is a requirement for air
purification/revitalization similar to that of the nuclear-powered submarines but it is
constrained by limited power and space. Some progress has been made in the adoption of air
purification equipment used in the nuclear-powered submarines for this application.

Background:
2. The air we breathe is made up of significant quantities of four gases such as Nitrogen (78%),
Oxygen (21%), Argon (0.94%) & Carbon dioxide (0.04). When we breathe in air, our bodies
consume its oxygen and convert it to carbon di oxide. Exhaled air contains about 4.5% carbon
dioxide. Our bodies do not do anything with nitrogen or argon.
3. A Submarine is a closed eco system that contains people and a limited supply of air. There are
three things that must happen in order to keep air in submarine breathable:
n Oxygen has to be replenished as it is consumed. If the percentage of oxygen in the air falls
too low, a person suffocates.
n Carbon dioxide must be removed from the air. As the concentration of carbon dioxide rises,
it becomes toxic.
n The moisture that we exhale in our breath must be removed.

39
Closed Atmosphere Control Equipment:-
n Electrolytic Oxygen Generators, Oxygen Candles
n CO2 Scrubbers, CO2 Adsorber/Absorber
Oxygen Generation
Electrolytic Oxygen Generators

Electrolysis Process Diagram

4. Using pure water, a mixture of potassium hydroxide, and electricity, a grouping of electrolytic
cells shown in the above drawing provide more than sufficient breathable oxygen for a
submarine crew. The electrolytic cells are enclosed within the electrolytic oxygen generator
cabinet shown above. The hydrogen produced is safely disposed-of. A newer unit, the Low
Pressure Electrolyzer, using state-of-the-art proton exchange membrane electrolysis cells is
now being used in newer submarines.
Solid Polymer Oxygen Generator
5. A new generation oxygen generator has been developed to advance the technology of safe and
reliable oxygen production. The Oxygen Generating Plant (OGP) produces breathing oxygen
through water electrolysis using a Solid Polymer Electrolyte (SPE) cell. This method of producing

40
 oxygen requires no free acids or caustic liquids. The OGP offers the following advantages over
current units.
a) Eliminates caustic electrolyte (KOH) and asbestos which is used as an insulator. The catalyst
impregnated plastic diaphragm serves as both the electrolyte and separator.
b) Microprocessor controlled. The OGP requires only 15 minutes to go through a shutdown,
purge, and restart to full operation compared to the 6 hours required by the Electrolytic
operated O2 generators (EOGs).
c) Operates at low pressure. Although capable of operating at pressures between 300 and
3000 psi, the normal mode of operation will be at low pressure (500-600 psi) once the
oxygen banks are charged.
d) Reduced inventory of combustible gases. At equal pressure the hydrogen side contents of
the OGP are one-tenth of the EOG. Lower normal operating temperatures bring further H2
reductions.
e) A 50% increase over EOG capacity, which permits providing the entire crew O2 needs with
only one OGP.
f) Discharges pure oxygen products. Provides essentially pure O2 compared to EOG
contamination of 0.5 to 1.0 % H2 contamination.
Oxygen Candles
6. A chlorate candle, or an oxygen candle, is a cylindrical chemical oxygen generator that contains a
mix of sodium chlorate and iron powder, which when ignited smolders at about 600 °C (1,112
°F), producing sodium chloride, iron oxide, and at a fixed rate about 6.5 man-hours of oxygen
per kilogram of the mixture. The mixture has an indefinite shelf life if stored properly: candles
have been stored for 20 years without decreased oxygen output. Thermal decomposition
releases the oxygen. The burning iron supplies the heat. The candle must be wrapped in thermal
insulation to maintain the reaction temperature and to protect surrounding equipment.
Potassium and lithium chlorate, and sodium, potassium and lithium perchlorates can also be
used in oxygen candles.
Cryogenic Process
7. Cryogenic air regeneration/revitalization is a new promising method to purify air in AIP
submarines carrying liquid oxygen (LOX) at approximately –180oC for their propulsion system.
Here the heat sink in the LOX is utilized to cool the contaminated air to approximately -150oC,
thus separating pollutants from the air stream by condensing or freezing them. Cryogenic air
purification is efficient for a large number of air pollutants, e.g. CO2, VOCs (except methane),
particles, ozone, etc. It is therefore a highly attractive technique to develop further. The use of
energy that is otherwise wasted is another feature making cryogenic air purification to a
suitable method for the future.

41
Co2 Gas Elimination Processes
CO2 Scrubbers/Absorbers (Chemical Based)
8. A Scrubber / Absorber is used to remove CO2 gas continuously on a submarine using
chemical based process. Chemical generally used to remove CO2 is mono-ethanol amine. MEA
is the acronym for mono-ethanol amine. MEA has the formula NH2 C2 H4 OH. The air to be
treated enters the exchange tower at 80oF and 75% relative humidity. Between 70 to 90% of the
CO2 is removed by this one pass through. The air is passed through a filter to entrap droplets of
the MEA solution and the air returns to the Submarine at about 75oC and 100% RH. The MEA
solution is recycled over the stainless steel screens with a portion of it withdrawn on each pass.
This material is passed through a column packed with glass rings and heated to drive off the CO2
under pressure. The 'cleaned' MEA is returned to the absorption cycle. The CO2 is cooled,
compressed and discharged overboard.

Chemical Based Scrubber / Adsorber Process Diagram

CO2 Adsorbers (Molecular Sieve Based)

9. In the molecular sieves based CO2 absorbers, the adsorption of CO2 takes place when the air
coming from compartments is passed over the molecular sieves placed in each adsorption bed
of the unit. A molecular sieve (grade 5A) is an industrially produced zeolite material with an
extremely large internal surface. Each pore is of uniform size and is slightly larger than a CO2
molecule. As CO2 contaminated air is passed through the zeolite bed the CO2 molecules are
adsorbed to the bed pores. When the majority of the pores are occupied, the bed is heated,
releasing the CO2, which can be discharged overboard.
These beds are generally placed parallel in the adsorbent chamber and connected in series
using top bed connectors and bottom bed connectors.
10. A water jacket is maintained around the beds. A flow of chilled water is maintained in the jacket
to take away the heat during the exothermic adsorption reaction. Adsorbent chambers can be
of rectangular or circular shape based on the requirements.

42
 Flow Diagram of Adsorption Process

Soda Lime Process

11. In diesel-electric submarines carbon dioxide is usually purified with either soda lime or lithium
hydroxide. As air is fed through a soda lime/lithium hydroxide canister, the carbon dioxide is
chemically attached to the purification agent. This process is not easily reversed, making it
necessary to store a full mission load onboard, occupying valuable space. Even though soda
lime/lithium hydroxide is not the optimum solution.
Cryogenic Process
12. Cryogenic air purification is a new promising method to purify air in AIP submarines carrying
liquid oxygen (LOX) at approximately –180oC for their propulsion system. Here the heat sink in
the LOX is utilized to cool the contaminated air to approximately -150oC, thus separating
pollutants from the air stream by condensing or freezing them. Cryogenic air purification is
efficient for a large number of air pollutants, e.g. CO2, VOCs (except methane), particles, ozone,
etc. It is therefore a highly attractive technique to develop further. The use of energy that is
otherwise wasted is another feature making cryogenic air purification to a suitable method for
the future.

Under Development Process

Biological Method
13. Biological air purification, mainly with green plants, has been used and tested in ordinary
buildings (Darlington, Chan, Malloch et al 2000). However on submarines is still on an
experimental stage. Biological purification uses either photosynthesis or enzymes to purify the
submarine air. The photosynthesis approach, a photo bioreactor, is based on marine green
algae that are kept onboard the submarine. The algae are fed with CO2-rich air and a nutrient

43
 while being exposed to fluorescent light, thus converting the CO2 to O2 in a natural way. A
possible problem with this method is to keep the algae alive. The Defence Science and
Technology Organization (DSTO) in Australia has performed studies on this air purification
method. It is not known if this system can also remove other air contaminants other than CO2.
Overboard Disposal/Discharge Process of CO2
14. The CO2 gases eliminated/absorbed/adsorbed through various process are required to be
discharged out from the underwater platform safely. Accumulation/collection of CO2 gases
onboard is also harmful/hazardous. This overboard discharge of CO2 gas can be carried out by
compact compressors, which compress the CO2 gas to the required pressure and the same will
be discharged overboard through valves.

44
 Author's Biodata
Capt DS Pannu (Retd) Sc 'E' is presently posted as a Director Naval Design (Submarine Design group).
He is heading the group responsible for design of systems required for maintaining habitable micro
climate onboard underwater platforms. He has been closely associated with indigenization of
equipment related to Air Regeneration systems and improving the air flow pattern and temperature
contures using CFD analysis in Habitable compartments.

Author's Biodata
Lt Cdr HM Pradeep is posted as a Deputy Director Naval Design (Submarine Design Group). He has
been involved in design of various systems of underwater platforms. He has shouldered various
responsibilities at Naval Dockyards and Ships during earlier appointments. He is an aluminous of IIT
Delhi Presently, the Officer is undergoing Management Course from IIM, Ahmedabad.

45
 article

5 SHOCK RESISTANCE ESTIMATION USING

TRANSIENT ANALYSIS OF FINITE ELEMENT
MODEL OF SUBMARINE EQUIPMENT
1 2
Vishal Sharma , Cdr. Sunil Tyagi
1 2
Larsen & Toubro Ltd, Gurgaon, DND(SDG) -IHQ MOD(Navy), New Delhi

Abstract:
The shock mount plays a crucial role in shock attenuation in case of shock due to underwater
explosion. This paper presents modeling and simulation of the dynamic behavior of shock
mounting scheme of equipments installed inside submarine. The Finite Element Analysis
software (ANSYS- APDL) was used to obtain the transient behavior of a DG set model and it was
demonstrated that effect of shock can be effectively modeled by transient analysis of
equipment FE model to estimate the shock resistance of the equipments.

1. Introduction
Shock resistance is an important design consideration during equipment and Platform design.
Every equipment has specific shock strength ⦋1⦌ and it is platform designer's responsibility to make
sure that the equipment should not receive the shock more than its shock resistance value for
which it has been designed during its service life onboard. Finite element analysis plays a significant
role in estimating the shock attenuation. In this paper emphasis is laid on use of transient analysis
⦋2⦌⦋3⦌of model to obtain shock attenuation and shock mount deflection.

2. Transient Analysis
Transient analysis is a module of ANSYS software which is employed for time varying dynamic
analysis and is based on the transient dynamic equilibrium equation⦋4⦌⦋5⦌.

Where:

46
In this Analysis structural Mass matrix, structural damping matrix, structural stiffness matrix and
applied load vectors are used to calculate nodal acceleration, velocity and displacement. Transient
analysis basically simulates the shock excitation wherein the time varying load is applied at the base
of equipment and residual shock is measured at the equipment. In this paper Dynamic simulation
was carried out for shock resistance estimation of Diesel generator. Transient analysis in ANSYS
contains three principal steps, i.e., Pre-processing, solution and post-processing.

3. Finite Element modeling in ANSYS

ANSYS is general purpose finite element analysis (FEA) software package. Finite Element analysis is
numerical method of deconstructing a complex system into very small pieces (of user designated
size) called elements. The software implements equations that govern the behavior of these
elements and solves them all; creating a comprehensive explanation of how the system acts as a
whole. These results then can be presented in tabulated or graphical forms. This type of analysis is
typically used for design and optimization of system far too complex to analyze by hand. Systems
that may fit into this category are too complex due to geometry, scale or governing equations. The
three principal steps in FEA are given below 6 .

3.1 Preprocessing
The user construct a model of the part to be analyzed in which the geometry is divided into a
number of discrete sub regions , or elements, “connected at discrete points called nodes”. Certain
of these nodes will have fixed displacements and others will have prescribed loads. Some of these
preprocessors can overlay a mesh on a preexisting CAD file, so that finite element analysis can be
done conveniently as part of the computerized drafting and design process. In our finite element
model elements were modeled using mass element MASS21, spring element COMBIN39 and beam
element BEAM 188. Mass element was modeled to simulate the mass of equipment and lump mass
of submarine. Spring element was modeled to simulate the shock mounts; the spring element here
used is COMBIN39 which is a non linear spring element where one can define non linear force-
deflection relation for spring as shown in Fig 1, which was very essential requirement to simulate
the actual properties of rubber [2][9]. Beam element was modeled to simulate the connecting
members which link the DG set with shock mount.

Fig. 1. Force-deflection relation of COMBIN39 Element.

47
After modeling the equipment in preprocessing, next step is applying load and boundary condition.
In this case time varying load was applied based on the shock pulse as per naval standards as shown
in Fig. 2, from the shock pulse equivalent g load is calculated and applied on the equipment base.
Boundary conditions were applied on equipment such that only one degree of freedom was kept
free i.e., the shock loading direction [7][8].

2000

1500
Accelera on in m/s^2

1000

500

0
5.5

13.5
16.5
19.5
22.5
25.5
28.5
31.5
34.5
37.5
10.67
2.88

8
0

-500
Time in milisec
-1000

Fig. 2. Acceleration vs. time graph based on naval standard.

3.2 Solution
The data prepared by the preprocessor is used as input to the finite element code itself, which
constructs and solves a system of linear or nonlinear algebraic equations. After applying load and
boundary condition next step is solving the finite element model, there are three solvers available
in ANSYS Transient analysis i.e., Full solution method, Reduced solution method and Mode
superposition method. For our application “Full solution method” was used. . Finite element
model formed in ANSYS APDL for Diesel Generator shown in
Figure 3.

Fig. 3. Finite element model for Diesel Generator

48
Blue Lines represent spring Element COMBIN39, Red lines represent beam Element BEAM188 and
Green Dots represents Mass Element MASS21.

3.3 Post Processing

In the earlier days of finite element analysis, the user would pore through reams of numbers
generated by the code, listing displacements and stresses at discrete positions within the model. It
is easy to miss important trends and hotspots this way, and modern codes use graphical display to
assist in visualizing the results. Typical postprocessor display overlays colored contours
representing stress and displacements on the models. The results for shock and deflection of DG
set are shown in Fig. 4 and Fig 5 respectively.

(X10**2)
1200
1000
800
600
400
VALU

200
0
-200
-400
-600
-800
0 .04 .08 .12 .16 .2 .24
TIME

Fig. 4. Residual Acceleration in Z direction.

40
32
24
16
8
VALU

0
-8
-16
-24
-32
-40
0 .04 .08 .12 .16 .2
TIME

Fig. 5. Mount Deflection in Z direction.

49
4. Results
In Post processing the Time varying results were visualized, the important parameters were
residual shock on equipment and deflection of shock mount are mentioned in table 1.

Table 1: Proper es of Methanol, Kerosene and Diesel

Direc on 'g' Shock Pulse (ms) Displacement
Value Full sine wave (mm)
X 5 30 12
Y 5.6 25 15
Z 8 12 37

4. Conclusion
Finite element analysis plays a significant role in estimating the shock attenuation which is
important design consideration while designing shock resistance of equipment and selection of
shock mount. Practical testing for shock is a cumbersome task for submarines; hence finite element
method seems most viable and simplistic approach for shock resistance estimation.

References:
1. Shock manual BR 3021 Vol. 1.
2. ANSYS INC, ANSYS Mechanical APDL structural analysis guide, Release 14.0
3. “Practical Finite Element analysis” by Nitin G Gokhale.
4. “Structural dynamics: Theory and Computation” by Mario Paz.
5. Rubin, Sheldon, “shock and vibration handbook” 2nd edition, Cyril M. harris and Allon G.
Piersal, Newyork-McGraw Hill, 2002, Print.
6. Pinjaral.Poornamohan 1, Lakshmana Kishore.T “Design and analysis of a shock absorber”
International Journal of Engineering Research and Technology (IJERT) Dec -2012, volume1.
7. Haluk Ozdemir, “Non-linear transient dynamic analysis of yielding structure” Ph.D.
Thesis/Dissertation.
8. Mehmet Emre Demir, “Shock analysis of an antenna structure subjected to Underwater
explosion”, Masters of Technology Thesis/Dissertation.
9. Szuladziniki, Gregory, “Formulas for mechanical and structural shock and impact “Boca Rato,
Taylor and Frances group, LLC, 2010 Print.

50
Author's Biodata
Vishal Sharma received B.Tech and ME degrees from BCET, Gurdaspur in
2007 and PEC, Chandigarh in 2010 respectively. He has joined Product and
Technology Development Center (PTDC) of Larsen & Toubro Ltd, Mumbai in
2010. He has over 5 years experience of design of land based military
equipments and about 1 year experience of platform design of submarine
systems.

Cdr. Sunil Tyagi received BE and ME degrees from G B Pant university in 1991
and Pune University in 2001 respectively. He was commissioned in
Engineering branch of Indian Navy in 1992. He has over ten years of
experience of onboard machinery maintenance and about 2 years of
experience of platform design of submarine systems. He is currently
pursuing Ph.D. in application of artificial intelligence for machinery fault
diagnosis.

51
 article

6 STUDY ON MULTI EFFECT DESALINATON SYSTEM

FOR NAVAL APPLICATIONS
(Lt Cdr Prashant Sharma & Lt Cdr Sahil Julka
Directorate of Naval Design (SDG),
Integrated Headquarters, MOD (Navy), New Delhi

Introduction
1. Water is one of the most abundant elements on the earth. However, only 3% of the earth's water
is fresh, non-saline, held in lakes, rivers, and reservoirs while the remaining 97% is salt water in
oceans. Meeting shortage of freshwater resources onboard naval platforms has been a major
factor of consideration for naval designers. Need is felt to review a better, efficient and
thermodynamically superior alternative in order to overcome this challenging task.
2. The development of desalination technology is an important way to resolve shortage of feed
and fresh water availability onboard naval platforms. There are other desalination technologies
such as membrane based Reverse Osmosis (RO) and thermal desalination based Multiple Stage
Flash (MSF) being largely used onboard Naval Platforms. However, these have peculiar
limitations governing their exploitation patterns and limiting distillate output. LT-MED (Low
Temperature - Multi Effect Desalination) technology is one promising alternative technology for
these. This technology can be coupled with power plants, propulsion systems or any other
auxiliary systems powered with energy sources like nuclear, thermal or solar, but also have
features of high thermal efficiency, high purity water production and sustained stable
operation.
3. Naval platforms operate on different propulsion cycles and thus have abundance of high and
low quality fluidic energy available. All platforms operating on steam propulsion (Rankine cycle)
have an essential requirement of installation of Distilling Plants (DPs) onboard in order to
ensure sustained availability of high quality feed water. Depending upon the output required
from the DP (Distilling Plant) in terms of quantity and quality, the temperature of pilot steam
into the desalination system can be selected.
4. MED technology is a thermal energy desalination based technology which has been developed
and exploited on a large scale in Middle East and arid regions of African continent for production
of potable and high purity water production. This technology has been used in paper, pulp and
food processing industries since early twentieth century. With increased fresh water demand
all around the world, the technology gained a substantiated growth in sea water desalination.
Presently, MED technology has shown an increasing market demand overcoming conventional
MSF (Multi Stage Flash) technology due to its inherent advantages and better results.
5.This paper aims at understanding prospects of utilizing MED technology for Naval Military
platforms where stealth, space and complexity of equipment are the major challenges. Whilst
the industry has already been utilizing this technology at a large scale, it is opined that, it has a
vast scope of implementation as an alternative to the existing thermal and membrane based
desalination systems which demand increased electrical loads, noise and vibration signatures

52
 and intense maintenance schedules. Aspects related to advantages, disadvantages and
challenges associated with implementation of MED systems onboard naval platforms have
been brought out in this paper.

Multi Effect Desalination for Naval Platforms

6. Advantages of MED for Naval Platforms. Following are the advantages of a MED plant for a
Naval platform:-
(a) Operation at Low Temperatures. MED systems operate at comparatively much lower
temperatures compared to conventional MSF plants due to utilization of low pressures for
vaporization over tubes stacks under vacuumized conditions. This makes MED more
suitable for even low grade primary heat sources wherein heat from engines exhaust,
exhaust steam ranges, residual heat of flue gases or heat rejected overboard may also be
efficiently utilized.
(b) Absence of Tubes Scaling. Unlike conventional MSF systems wherein scaling of tubes is a
major cause of reduced heat transfer and sub-optimal performance, MED by virtue of its
low operating temperatures operates much below the tubes scale inducing temperature
range. This results in a reduced downtime of plant for maintenance and thus a longer
operational cycle. Fig. 1 indicates the calcium sulphate (CaSO4) solubility curves for MED
and MSF desalination systems. It can be observed that, salt based scale deposition is much
lesser for MED systems due to low operating temperature ranges.
(c) High Performance Ratios. MED process has the potential of offering performance ratios in
excess of 20. The maximum ratio will depend upon the top temperature of operation and
the number of effects used. Depending upon the required distillate output rate the steam
quantity and its temperature required at the first stage varies.
(d) Low Initial Cost. MED systems are comparable to MSF systems for initial cost of installation.
Improvisation in materials and production facilities may result in further reduction of initial
capital costs of plant installation.
(e) High Stealth Characteristics. Due to its ability of optimally operating at low temperatures,
absence of dynamic components and low range of sea water flow Reynolds No, the MED
plants result in having excellent stealth characteristics.
(f) Improved Performance with Increasing First Stage Steam Temperature. M E D s y s t e m
performance improves with increasing performance ratio due to increase in the inlet
temperature of first stage pilot steam. Onboard naval platforms, the availability of a suitable
temperature source fluid, therefore can suffice for the improved performance of distilling
plants by utilizing the MED system with increased output rate and quality of distillate.

53
54
 (g) Low Maintenance. MED systems require low maintenance due to longer operational cycle
periods avoiding requirements of undertaking de-scaling and frequent inspections of
internal components. Additionally, absence of moving components further reduces the
wear and tear factors experienced during exploitation of plants.
(h) Absence of Low Tube Leak Contamination Risk. MED systems may be considered free from
sea water tube leak contamination free. Since the pressure inside of tubes stacks is always
higher than the sea water flow pressure outside. Thus, in case of a tube leak, only steam
leaks out and desalination remains contamination free with a little high rate of steam
consumption.
7. Typical MED Plant. The schematic of a typical horizontal tube Multi-Effect Desalination (MED)
unit is placed at Fig. 2. The steam enters the plant and is used to evaporate injected seawater
into the respective effect stages. The secondary vapor produced is used to generate tertiary
steam at a lower pressure. This operation is repeated along the plant from stage to stage in a
cascaded pattern.
8. The MED technique is based on falling film evaporation and heat transfer phenomenon. The
latent steam heat is transferred at each stage between the steam condensing inside of the
evaporator tubes through the heat transfer surfaces to the sea water falling over the horizontal
or vertical tubes stacks as thin film. Heat transfer on both sides of the heat transfer area is
considered highly efficient due to the low resistance of the thin falling films, which allows
efficient operation with a low temperature difference across the tube walls. The low
temperature difference is limited by the increasing boiling point elevation (BEP) due to the
increase in salt concentration while evaporating part of the water. It is also limited since at too
high fluxes, the film starts to boil, nucleating bubbles, causing dry spots that may lead to salt
precipitation. This mode of operation needs to be avoided. The low temperature difference
across the heat transfer surfaces allows designing a large number of effects between the steam
temperature at the first stage and the temperature of the cooling seawater at the other side.

Figure 2. A Typical Horizontal Tubes MED Plant Layout.

55
9. This cascaded process has been repeated up to 16 times and even more in the existing plants
used for large scale desalination processes. The efficacy of a MED plant depends upon the
temperature difference between the upper possible temperature of inlet steam to the first
stage and the lower possible inlet seawater temperature. The product water is the condensate
that accumulates from stage to stage post condensation in each stage evaporators. A vacuum
pump is used to maintain the gradual pressure gradient inside the vessel by removing the
accumulated non-condensable gases together with the remaining water vapor after the final
condensation stage. The pressure gradient along the MED effects is dictated by the saturation
pressure of the feed stream and the saturation pressure of the condensing steam exiting the
last stage and is condensed by the seawater. Pressure gradients of 5-50 kPa across the system
and less than 5 kPa/stage are typical.
10. More stages increase the performance ratio or the GOR - Gain Output Ratio, which is actually
the quantity of tons of water produced per ton of initial steam while reducing energy
consumption of the process. The number of effects required for a given
desired output thus can be estimated using the following relation:-
GOR = 0.8 x n
Where,
GOR = Gain Output Ratio
n = No of effects
The GOR typically depends upon the initial steam temperature and can reach up to a value of 15,
which is higher than the maximum value of 10 for MSF. Therefore, thermal efficiency of MED may
be considered better than MSF.
11. The economy of design and operation is dictated mainly by the availability of a source of low-
cost energy. In this case, operational conditions may lead to the choice of low cost materials and
heat transfer surfaces when corrosion problems are minimized, while maintaining low
probability of CaSO4 precipitation on the tubes. A MED plant can be operated below 70 deg C
using Aluminum or Titanium tubes, involving up to 50% recovery of energy. Corrosion rates are
very low below this temperature and thus there is no need to remove oxygen, and cleaning of
internal components and tubes is less frequent. An efficiently designed MED plant thus can
easily meet the required water demands for a naval platform. Twin trains of MED stages may be
built up to enable larger overall plant capacity in a compatible arrangement.
12. Many possible MED system designs are available as horizontal or vertical tubes or flat sheet heat
exchangers during a stage. The stages may be arranged horizontally or vertically, and the
seawater flow can be co-current, counter-current or parallel feed with the flow direction of the
steam produced. These design variations affect water pumping in the system, which is related
to part of the energy losses, and they affect the occasional cleaning of the heat exchangers.
Specific process designs are sometimes developed for specific site conditions. Fig. 3 illustrates a
schematic view of a vertical tube evaporator design. Fig. 4, Fig. 5, Fig. 6 and Fig. 7 show
installations of forward feed, backward feed, mixed feed and parallel feed MED system
arrangements respectively. Research has indicated that a parallel feed MED system has the
highest and most optimal performance characteristics.

56
Figure 3. A Typical Vertical Arrangement MED plant Layout

Figure 4. Schematic of a Forward Feed MED system

57
Figure 5. Schematic of a Backward Feed MED System

Figure 6. Schematic of a Mixed Feed MED System

58
 Figure 7. Schematic of a Parallel Feed MED System

13. Main components of a typical marine MED plant are as follows:-

(a) MED Evaporator. Usually a horizontal or vertically arranged stacks of tubes over which sea
water flow takes place and exchanges latent heat of condensation with steam flowing
within the tubes. This exchange of heat depends upon the heat transfer coefficient over the
tubes. Tubes are either made up Ti or Al alloys for better heat transfer characteristics.
However, for naval platforms requirements usage of Ti tubes is recommended. Evaporator
is maintained under vacuum to achieve vaporization of sea water at low saturated
temperatures.
(b) Auxiliary Pumps. System requires typically four pumps. These are as follows:-
(i) Sea water feed pump
(ii) Brine pump
(iii) Distillate pump
(iv) Vacuum pump or Steam ejector or Seawater educator
(c) Associated Controls. Controls are required to monitor system performance and remote
control it's functioning. It also includes integration of salinity sensors and remote auto
operation of valves, provisioning of alarms and suitable indicators etc.
(d) Heat Source for First Effect. First stage heat is required from an external heat source. The
source could be a steam generator, flue gases or engine exhaust. Typically, steam is
preferred as it makes system more compact by incorporating an additional condensate
effect.

59
 (e) Final Stage Condenser. A final stage condenser is required for condensing final effect
produced vapour, cooling of cumulative distillate produced in all stages and ensuring pre
heating of sea water prior injection in stages of MED evaporators. It is generally a shell and
tube type heat exchanger maintained below the lowest vacuum of final stage.

Technical Challenges
14. Even though the MED systems have large number of advantages over other thermal
desalination systems, its naval application has to be realized considering typical specifications
and operational constraints of space, reliability and longer operational cycles. The challenges
associated with the design, development and integration of a naval platform with MED system
are highlighted in the succeeding paragraphs.
15. Design Challenges. Unlike land based large scale desalination plants, marine based MED plants
have peculiar requirements of assured performance, safety, reduced maintenance and
compact design which would be subjected to heavy sea states, marine environment and
demanding prolonged operational conditions. Another important aspect is the marine
environment induced corrosion, shock and vibration considerations. Further, stringent
standards of feed water quality also need to be achieved under all operational conditions. The
machinery compartments of naval platforms are highly congested and some internal sections
remain inaccessible for inspection or replacement throughout for a long period. Thus, the
required design must be able to sustain longer operational periods without failures.
16. The manufacturing of naval version MED would include piping designing and pressure vessel
designing as per the stringent norms of ASME PV Codes/NES. These codes give criteria for
selection of materials, fabrication, examination, testing and norms for safety of equipment and
operator. These standards also include stringent standards for special production procedures
and rigorous quality assurance conditions. The factor of military application makes them even
more stringent vis-à-vis the conventional plants.
17. The major design challenge for naval platform MED plant is to sustain operational marine
environment, achievement of optimal compact configurations and high reliability in operation.
A naval MED plant therefore must meet the following:-
(a) A reliable performance under all sea states.
(b) Compact design for ensuring occupancy of minimum space in machinery compartment.
(c) Ability to withstand variations in sea water temperatures.
(d) Ability to withstand shock loads.
(e) Reach sustained desired operational state in minimum duration of time.
(f) To achieve stringent Naval Engineering Standards (NES) for various aspects like shock,
EMI/EMC and habitability factors.
18. Material Challenges. With the advent of better metallurgy and active research in the field of
optimizing materials for thermal applications, new opportunities have emerged with high

60
 probability to meet the performance requirements of a marine MED system. Making a
component compact with enhanced performance inadvertently demands usage of materials
with better heat transfer, anti-corrosive and ease of machinability characteristics. Usage of
tubes made of Ti alloys can result in an efficient marine MED evaporator. Similarly, most suited
materials for various MED components are as listed below in Table 1:-

Table 1: List of Suited Materials for a Naval MED plant

Sl Component Material Used
(a) MED Evaporator tubes Ti or SS tubes
(b) Final Condenser Ti and SS tubes and Carbon steel structure
(c) MED Shell SS/Carbon Steel alloy
(d) Secondary system piping Carbon Steel/SS
(e) Pumps Cu alloy impellers and body
(f) First stage steam pipeline 439 Ferritic steel

Challenges for Integration of MED on Naval Platforms

19. A highly sophisticated and congested network of system layouts exist onboard naval platforms
due to limited space availability. One of the major challenges is to accommodate an efficient
but much compactly designed MED unit for naval application. Additionally, distillate produced
has to meet a stringent quality standard which is of prime importance. This demands a highly
efficient designing of critical components for MED system. Authors have undertaken
formulation of sample design algorithms for final condenser and MED evaporators in order to
optimize the design procedure. These are placed at Algorithm 1 & Algorithm 2 respectively.

Developments in Designing & Manufacturing of Marine MED

Plants in Country
20. With the advent of new technologies, better understanding of materials and increasing
industrial experience a considerable competence has been gained in design and development
of MED technology for marine applications. National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT),
MoES, Chennai in consultation with industry R&D sectors has been actively involved in realizing
the potential of this innovative technology at commercial level for mass production of fresh
water from sea water desalination. The industry has shown a considerable understanding and
growing interest in this technology and can play an instrument role in realizing its naval
platform variants. Many naval and commercial ship yards across the country can be tasked to
undertake the production of customized systems on turnkey basis in close consultation of
industrial expertise in this field. Following is recommended:-
(a) Application of advance metallurgy in fabrication of equipment and components in order to
withstand variations in temperatures, salinity and vacuum pressure condition.

61
 (b) Development of new and better metals based alloy for fabrication of tubes and shell
structures of MED evaporators and condensers.
(c) Development of superior performance hydraulic pumps with high efficiency and low noise
characteristics.
(d) Development of test facilities for controls and performance analysis of model based plants.
(e) Development of Ti welding and fabrication expertise.
(f) Development of suitable control equipment in terms of hardware and software.
(g) Development of compact systems with high reliability in consultation with academia and
industrial experts.
(h) Development of improvised designs for achieving better heat transfer and compact
configurations. Fig. 8 indicates a possible tube surface design for improvised heat transfer
rates.

Figure 8. Improved Tube Designs for Enhanced Heat Transfer

Way Ahead
21. MED technology has a large scope of implementation on naval platforms due to its inherent
superior performance characteristics with high thermal efficiency compared to other
conventional thermal energy based sea water desalination systems. Though, the technology
has been tested and proven for commercial applications, its usage for naval platforms needs to
be established in which Indian industry can play a pivotal role. It is therefore recommended that
the applicability and specific requirements of customizing an MED system for Naval applications
be taken up for a detailed study and subsequent design and development through indigenous
sources.

62
Algorithm 1. Estimation of Design Parameters of Condenser

63
Algorithm 2. Estimation of Design Parameters of MED Evaporator

64
References
1. Chyu & Bergles. An Analytical and Experimental Study of Falling-Film Evaporation on a
Horizontal Tube. Journal of Heat Transfer. Nov 1987, Vol. 109/983.

2. O.J. Morin. Design and operating comparison of MSF and MED systems. Desalination, 93 (1993)
69-109.

3. Joseph Cotruvo. Desalination Technology - Health and Environment.

4. Raphael Semiat. Multi Effect Desalination - Water and waste water treatment technology.

5. Soteris A. Kalogirou. Seawater desalination using renewable energy sources. Progress in Energy
and Combustion Science 31 (2005) 242-281.

65
Author's Biodata

Lt Cdr Sahil Julka (42696-K) graduated from IEC College of Engineering, Noida as a Mechanical
Engneer. He is a UES entry officer. The officer was commissioned on 15 Apr 2006. He completed his
Masters in Marine engineering from DIAT, Pune in 2016. The officer has served on board INS Betwa
as Assistant Engineer Officer, INS Alleppey as Engineer Officer and Senior Instructor (Steam) at INS
Shivaji, Lonavala. He is presently posted at the Directorate of Naval Design (Submarine Design
Group) as Joint Director.
Lt Cdr Prashant Sharma (42846-A) graduated from the Naval College of Engineering as a
Mechanical Engineer. He was commissioned on 01 Jan 2008 in the Marine Engineering branch of
the Indian Navy. The Officer has served on board INS Beas as Assistant Engineer Officer, INS Bitra as
Engineer Officer and NSRY (PBR) as Manager Production Control. He completed his post
graduation in Thermal Engineering from IIT Madras in 2016. The officer is presently serving as
Deputy Director of Naval Design (Submarine Design Group) at IHQ MoD (N), New Delhi.

66
 article

7 EFFECTIVE DESIGN OF SUBMARINE EQUIPMENT

MOUNTING SCHEME
(Lt Cdr L Kaushik & Cdr Sunil Tyagi, Directorate of Naval Design (SDG),
Integrated Headquarters, MOD (Navy), New Delhi)

Abstract: - The design of mounting scheme is a very important evolution which is carried out to
isolate the vibration and noise of the equipment which helps in the reduced acoustic signature of the
platform. This paper contains the various design procedures that are used for optimization of the
mounting scheme for equipment.

I. Introduction
Stealth capability is the most important characteristic of a submarine to carry out its missions
undetected. To achieve this ability one of the primary step to be taken is the isolation of vibration
and noise generated by equipment with the hull. The designer has to select the most optimal
mount and its orientation to achieve this isolation for each of the vibro-active equipment onboard.
Equipment are mounted with Shock and Vibration mounts for the following reasons:
(a) Protect equipments from shock due to underwater explosion.
(b) Reduce transmission of equipment vibration to the hull which in turn reduces Under Water
Radiated Noise

II. Natural Frequency and Transmissibility

Natural Frequency. SV mounted equipment effectively acts as a spring mass damper system (Fig.1).
Here the equipment is the mass and the mounts act as springs in parallel. The natural frequency of
the system can be calculated using the following:

(1)

Where
fx - Natural frequency in x direction

kx– Stiffness of the mount in x direction



n - Number of mounts



m – Mass of the equipment

67
This equation can be used accurately when the Center of Gravity of the
equipment lies in the plane of mounts. When the Centre of Gravity is away
from the plane of the mounts, softwares are used to determine the natural
frequency.

Fig 1. Spring Mass System Fig 2. Transmissibility Curve

Transmissibility (τ) In a spring mass system Transmissibility is the steady

state ratio of the amplitude of the motion of mass to the amplitude of the
motion of the spring. If transmissibility is > 1 is in the amplification zone as
shown in the transmissibility curve (Fig.2). Maximum amplification occurs
when forced frequency is equal to natural frequency. The following formula
is used for Transmissibility calculation:

(2)

The τ is kept below 1 to have maximum isolation of vibration.

III. Selection of Shock and Vibration Mounts
The following steps are undertaken for the selection of SV mounts for an equipment:
(a) Equipment footprint. The equipment footprint data is studied and the number of mounts is
decided based on the weight distribution of the equipment.
(b) Weight of the equipment. Once the number of mounts is known, the load per mount is
calculated using the weight data of the equipment. Few mounts are selected from an album of
mounts as per its maximum loading capacity. These mounts are selected such that the
percentage of loading per mount ranges between 60% – 90% of its maximum loading.
© Centre of Gravity. The position of the concentration of mass of the equipment plays a major role
in spacing and selection of mounts. The C.G of equipment is set in the equipment model and
calculations are done using the software.(d)Calculation of natural frequency. The natural
frequency in all the directions is calculated with the equation at Para 3(a) or by modeling the
equipment using software.
(e) Transmissibility. Using the equation in Para 3(b) the transmissibility of the mounting scheme is
calculated. Transmissibility less than 1 offers good isolation characteristics.
(f) Finalisation of the mounting scheme.The most optimum mounting scheme is studied using
various mounts, orientations (Mixed or Normal Fig.3) and iterations. Cascading of the mounts
(Fig.4) is also studied to achieve the desired Transmissibility.

NORMAL ORIENTATION MIXED ORIENTATION

Fig 3. Orientation of Mounts

69
 Fig 4. Cascade Mounting Fig.5 Effect of shift of CG on the
Natural Frequency

IV. Effect of Change in Center of Gravity

Calculation of natural frequency of a mounting scheme is accurate using equation 1 when the
Center of Gravity lies in the plane of mounting. Advanced software like ANSYS and COBRA are used
to analyse the natural frequency of the mounting scheme accurately. A study was undertaken
where in the effect of shift of C.G on the natural frequency of the scheme was undertaken and the
results are as follows:

Table 1.Comparison of Natural Frequency

NATURAL FREQUENCIES (Hz)

C.G POSITION X Y Z XX YY ZZ
0 mm on plane 11.7 9.17 15.3 10.4 5.66 22.1
of mounts
100 mm 11.9 8.83 15.3 10.8 5.57 22.1
200 mm 12.5 8.25 15.3 11.5 5.31 22.1
300 mm 13.4 7.67 15.3 12.4 4.96 22.1
400 mm 14.4 7.12 15.4 13.4 4.59 22.1
412.4 mm PP CG 14.8 7.18 15.7 13.6 4.59 22.1
500 mm 4.23 6.62 15.3 14.4 4.23 22.1
600 mm 3.9 6.17 15.2 15.5 17 22.1
700 mm 3.59 5.76 15.3 16.6 18.5 22.1
800 mm 3.32 5.38 15.3 17.7 20 22.1
900 mm 3.07 5.04 15.3 18.9 21.5 22.2
1000 mm 2.86 4.74 15.3 20.1 22.3 22
The above study was undertaken for a pump wherein the CG of the pump was shifted by 100 mm in
the vertical direction and the results of the natural frequency were calculated. As shown in the
table shift in CG in Z direction has very little effect on the natural frequency in the Z direction. There
is a significant change in the natural frequency in X and Y direction due to the shift in CG in Z
direction. This study clearly shows the implication of C.G in the selection of SV Mounts.

V. Case Study in Selection of Mounts

A case of high vibration was observed in a Steam Plant pump during its trials. The mounting scheme
of the pump was studied to mitigate the high vibration levels. The pump was fitted initially with
Type A mounts in cascade. The vibration levels at 25 Hz was found to be above the specified levels
for the pump.
Various combination of mounting scheme using Type A and Type B mount in normal, mixed
orientation and cascade was studied. The results are tabulated below.

Table 2. Transmissibility Study

Case 1
Mount Type B
MODE Natural Freq. (Hz) Ratio of Forcing Transmissibility
frequency to Natural
Frequency (ff/fn)
Translational X fx 18.1 1.39 1.09
Translational Y fy 9.3 2.68 0.16
Translational Z fz 20 1.25 1.76
Rotational X fxx 16.7 1.5 0.8
Rotational Y fyy 5.8 4.3 0.06
Rotational Z fzz 27 0.93 7.17

Table 2. Transmissibility Study

Case 2
Mount Type B Cascade
MODE Natural Freq. (Hz) Ra o ff/fn Transmissibility
Transla onal X fx 13.06 1.91 0.38
Transla onal Y fy 6.45 3.88 0.07
Transla onal Z fz 14.12 1.77 0.47
Rota onal X fxx 12.06 2.07 0.3
Rota onal Y fyy 4.02 6.22 0.03
Rota onal Z fzz 19.06 1.31 1.39

71
 Table 2. Transmissibility Study
Case 3
Mount Type A in Cascade
MODE Natural Freq. (Hz) Ra o ff/fn Transmissibility
Transla onal X fx 20.95 1.19 2.36
Transla onal Y fy 10.7 2.34 0.22
Transla onal Z fz 23.12 1.08 5.91
Rota onal X fxx 18.97 1.32 1.36
Rota onal Y fyy 6.75 3.7 0.08
Rota onal Z fzz 31.19 0.8 2.8

VI. Results
In the above mentioned table the Mount Type B in cascade (Case 2) shows the best transmissibility
possible. The transmissibility is high only in the rotational z mode out of the six vibration modes.
Further trials of the pump with the Type B mounts in cascade showed significant reduction in
vibration levels at 25 Hz.

VII. Conclusion
Optimal selection of mounts for equipment is very critical to ensure the isolation on the noise and
vibration from the equipment with the hull. This isolation helps in making the platform silent to
achieve the stealth criteria of the submarine.
With advancement in technology there is a diverse variety of mounts commercially available that
can be used for equipment onboard. The selection of most optimal mounts is based on a number of
diverse factors. Amongst these, in this paper the effect of Transmissibility and the shift in Center of
Gravity of the equipment have been brought out.
Mounting scheme with a Transmissibility < 1 (Isolation Zone) in all directions is important to ensure
the forcing frequency of the equipment is away from the natural frequency of the mounting
scheme. This ensures maximum isolation of vibration forces from the hull.

References:
1. Shock manual BR 3021 Vol. 1.
2. ANSYS INC, ANSYS Mechanical APDL structural analysis guide, Release 14.0.
3. Schmitt R.V and Leingang C.J, Design of elastomer vibration isolation mounting system for IC
engines, SAE technical paper, 760431
4. Tian Ran Lin, Nabil H. Farag, Jie Pan, Evaluation of frequency dependant rubber mount stiffness
and damping by impact test, journal of applied acoustics 66 (2005), 829-8254
5. Rivin, E. “Vibration Isolation of precision objects” Sound and Vibration.
6. Rubin , Sheldon, “ shock and vibration handbook” 2nd edition, Cyril M. harris and Allon G.
Piersal, Newyork-McGraw Hill, 2002, Print.
7. Pinjaral.Poornamohan 1, Lakshmana Kishore.T “Design and analysis of a shock absorber”
International Journal of Engineering Research and Technology (IJERT) Dec -2012, volume1.
8. Robert Simmons P.E, Vibration Isolation, ASHRAE Journal 2007

72
Author's Biodata

Lt Cdr L Kaushik received B.Tech from Naval College of Engineering,

Lonavala in 2011. He was commissioned in Engineering branch of Indian
Navy in 2011. He has about three years of experience of onboard
machinery maintenance and about 1 year experience of platform design of
submarine systems.

Cdr. Sunil Tyagi received BE and ME degrees from G B Pant university in 1991
and Pune University in 2001 respectively. He was commissioned in
Engineering branch of Indian Navy in 1992. He has over ten years of
experience of onboard machinery maintenance and about 2 years of
experience of platform design of submarine systems. He is currently
pursuing Ph.D. in application of artificial intelligence for machinery fault
diagnosis

73
 article

8 ROLL MOTION CONTROL OF SUBMARINES

AT FREE SURFACE USING JUXTAPOSITIONED
STERN PLANES
(Krishna G Das* and P.Krishnankutty**
* Indian Navy; **Dept. of Ocean Engineering, IIT Madras, India)

SUMMARY
Rounded shape and few or no appendages on the outer hull of a modern submarine results in very
poor roll damping characteristics and the submarine exhibits large roll motions while operating at
surface. Even though the motion characteristics of the submarine near or at surface has been
estimated experimentally and numerically, the studies on the methods available to control the roll
motion are scanty. In this paper, differential action of stern planes has been adopted as a means of
controlling the roll motion. The seakeeping calculation was undertaken numerically, using potential
flow theory and RANSE solvers, for different combination of speed, sea states and wave angles and
the roll RMS values were compiled. Operability plots were generated for different NORDFORSK
criteria, which specify the maximum value of RMS roll values permissible for different operational
scenarios. It was found from the above studies that the selected hull form exhibits very poor
seakeeping characteristics while operating at surface in beam seas. To estimate the stabilizing
moment, which can reduce this roll motion, free stream characteristics of the stern plane were
carried out. Using the stabilising moment, reduced roll motion has been estimated using a RANSE
solver.
KEYWORDS: submarine, roll motion, stern planes, free stream characteristics, lift force, stabilizing
moment, seakeeping, operability

NOMENCLATURE

74
1. INTRODUCTION
There has been a remarkable change in the hull form of submarines over the last 100 years. The
submarine designs of World War I and II were very much like a surface vessel that could dive when
required. This was mainly due to the limited battery endurance available at that time which forced
them to spend more time on surface because of which the hull form was optimized for greater
speed on surface than submerged.
However with the advancements in nuclear technology and fuel cell, Nuclear/ AIP submarines were
developed which could remain submerged for a longer duration. This led to the modern
submarines adopting a role reversal than the ones operated earlier, i.e. spend very less time on
surface and remain submerged for majority of the time of operation. Hence the hydrodynamics of
the vessel when submerged became the primary factor of design. This requirement influenced the
design of hull form and resulted in a rounded shape with very few appendages which is ideal for
submerged conditions, but has very poor roll damping effects and such a submarine exhibits large
roll motions when operating on surface.
It may sound contradictory that when a submarine is optimized for submerged condition, why the
sea keeping in surface condition should be significant. It is, because of the fact there are various
scenarios in which a nuclear / AIP submarine has to surface and it is unavoidable. It is for this reason
that the present study has been conducted where the roll characteristics of the submarine while
operating at surface are estimated and methods adopted to reduce the roll motion.

2. BACKGROUND STUDY
It is pertinent to mention that even though there are several nations operating submarines
worldwide, very less literature is available on submarine seakeeping characteristics. This might be
primarily because of the secretive nature of the submarine programme of major navies. However,
Australian Navy in joint collaboration with Australian Maritime College has published a few papers,
which are discussed below.
Lund (2005) focused on the overall parameters that affect a surfaced submarine in beam seas. He
looked into the effect of control surface configuration, of entrain water in the casing of the vessel
and the effects of green water on the deck of the vessel.
El-Atm (2006) studied on the roll motions of a surfaced submarine with various states of flooding in
the outer casing. The aim was to investigate whether this entrained water could be used in a similar
fashion to an anti-roll tank on a surface ship. The effects of a damaged condition were also
investigated to understand how a flooding in a forward compartment would affect the
performance of the vessel on the surface. This work also investigated the configuration of the aft
control surfaces. Further to the work of Lund (2005) this paper included a comparison with a
numerical simulation, in this case ShipMo3D, to gauge the effectiveness of this code as a tool for
prediction. The results of this showed that the numerical prediction severely over estimates the roll
response.

75
Davies (2007) looked in detail at the effect of appendages on the roll damping of a submarine in
surface operations. This work was based largely on the data and testing of El-Atm (2006) thus
allowing for a very good comparison of experimental results. The effects of tail configuration,
control surface wing tips and the use of bilge keels were explored. A CFD analysis was undertaken to
compare results for the effect of the wing tip modification. As a result of the study it could be seen
that bilge keels provide an effective means of improving the roll damping on a surface submarine.
Although it is worth noting that the stealth properties and flow noise of these appendages was not
looked at. Given the importance of these properties bilge keels are in no way practical for naval
submarines.
Hedberg (2006), investigated how to simulate the roll motion of a Australian Collins Class like mock-
up submarine. The effect of adding appendages and transverse metacentric height at different sea
states whilst the submarine is in surface condition was analysed. McKinley (2012), studied the
effect of vertical centre of gravity on the roll motions of a surfaced submarine. Details of the roll
damping afforded by both the shape of the submarine and its mass distribution were looked at.
Both numerical and experimental tests were conducted on a generic diesel-electric submarine hull
form. Letter(2009), investigated the roll motion experienced by a surfaced submarine in beam seas
using CFD techniques and physical model scale experiments. The work focused on roll decay and 2D
roll response and its prediction using numerical techniques.
From the above literature review it is evident that the roll motion of a submarine while at surface is
a matter of concern and various options of reducing it have been looked upon by the Australian
Navy in joint collaboration with Australian Maritime College. Further, Papanikolis (U 214) class
submarines of Greece built by HDW have reported of poor surface sea keeping (roll amplitude up to
45 degrees) in high seas during sea trials.
However it may be noted that the same problem is faced by surface ships also and they have
successfully deployed active fins as one of the means of roll stabilisation, but no work has been
published on the use of active fins on submarines. From open source it was understood that the
modern submarines of US and Russian Navy have the mechanism of deflecting a portion of the total
movable area of the stern plane independently to control roll. However no literature has been
published on the same. This when used, can create a stabilising moment which can reduce the
amplitude or roll when operating at surface or in dived position. Presently majority of the
submarines use a common tiller for deflection of both the port and starboard stern plane. By this,
the stern planes could be deflected only in the same direction and can be used only for controlling
trim. By making the starboard and port stern plane independent, it can be used for controlling both
trim and roll.

3. SCOPE OF CALCULATION
The amplitude of roll motion of the submarine, without the action of the stern planes, at surface
has been estimated in frequency domain using the software Paramarine and in time domain using
the software STAR-CCM+. The submarine with the effect of stern planes has been studied in time
domain software to determine the roll stabilisation. Already available horizontal stern planes were
used so that no additional appendage had to be added. The details of the study undertaken are as
follows:-

76
 (a) Selected a parent submarine hull form.
(b) Created the submarine computer model and performed sea-keeping calculations, primarily
to estimate the roll amplitude in the frequency domain, using the software PARAMARINE at
different combinations of submarine speed, sea states, wave heading.
(c) Compared the results with those available in literature.
(d) Performed free decay tests numerically using the CFD Package STAR-CCM+ to establish the
natural period of roll.
(e) Carried out sea-keeping calculations in beam seas (roll motion considered) at different
speeds, wave heights and periods using STAR-CCM+
(f) Studied the free stream characteristics of the stern planes by modelling it alone
independently to estimate the lift force generated by it at different angles of attack and
speeds using STAR-CCM+ and validated the results with NACA report no.669.
(g) Using the lift force, estimated the stabilising moment that would be generated by the stern
planes when deflected in equal and opposite directions.
(h) Fed values of the above estimated stabilising moments to the software STAR-CCM+ and
obtained the reduced roll amplitude at different speeds, wave heights and periods.

4. PARENT SUBMARINE DATA

The parent submarine was chosen as the one used by Santhosh Kumar and Avinash (2013), the
main particulars of which are as follows. These along with the offset data have been used as input
for generating the model of the submarine.

Main Particular Value

Length overall, LOA 60 m
Beam Overall, BOA 7.2 m
Height Overall, HOA 12.2 m
Draft, T 5.26 m
Wetted Surface Area, WSA 1203 m2
surface 1790 t
submerged 1970 t
Envelope Displacement 2070 t
Maximum Submerged Speed 20 kn
Maximum Surface Speed 10 kn
Transverse Metacentric Height, GMT 0.478 m
Moment of Inertia [1.136E7, 4.025E8, 4.025E8]kgm2
Centre of Gravity [32.002, 0.004, 3.823] m

77
5. ROLL MOTION ANALYSIS USING PARAMARINE
The software used is Paramarine™, which is an integrated naval architecture software tool for
commercial ship, warship and submarine design. The integrated set of tools of the software address
the concept design, performance prediction, strength and structures, radar cross section,
powering, manoeuvring, endurance, sea keeping, vulnerability and design for production. It keeps
the design spiral within a single working software environment. Since different modules are linked
(via pointers), any change in a parameter automatically causes cascading changes through the
entire design.

Co-ordinate Systems
When analyzing the motion of marine vehicles, it is convenient to use two co-ordinate frames. The
moving co-ordinate frame X0Y0Z0 is fixed to the vehicle and is called the body-fixed reference
frame. The origin of the body fixed frame is usually chosen to coincide with the centre of gravity
(CG) when CG is in the principal plane of symmetry. For marine vehicles, the body axes X0, Y0 and Z0
coincide with the principal axes of inertia and are usually defined as:-
X0 – Longitudinal axis (directed from aft to fore)
Y0 – Transverse axis (directed to starboard)
Z0 – Normal axis (directed from top to bottom)
The motion of the body fixed frame is described relative to an inertial reference frame. For marine

Figure 1: Body and earth fixed reference frames

78
From the offset data, 2 separate 3D models were created in the software and are given in figures 2
and 3 below.

Figure 2: Bare hull

Figure 3: Appended hull (includes vertical rudder, stern planes and fin planes)

Layout of Control Surfaces

The configuration of control surfaces on the submarine used for present study is shown in figure 4.
The forward planes and stern planes are used for controlling the motions in vertical plane. Vertical
rudders (both upper and lower) are used for controlling the motions in horizontal plane. Forward
planes are primarily used for depth keeping and stern planes for maintaining trim. When the depth
has to be changed with a specified trim, both forward and stern planes are used in tandem where
stern planes keep the submarine at specified trim and forward planes changes the depth. Vertical
rudders are used for course keeping. Also shown is the design draft of the submarine and it may be
noted that only the stern planes are below the waterline, rest all the control surfaces are above the
waterline, when the submarine is in surface condition.

79
 Figure 4: Configuration of control surfaces

Initial condition
The draft and centre of gravity of the vessel in the condition required for the sea-keeping
calculations are specified. The range of speeds and headings at which the sea-keeping calculation
module would generate the RAO information are specified. Submarine roll response spectra at
different sea states are estimated from the RAO data and appropriate wave spectra is chosen with
the range of frequencies.

ProteusF
For undertaking seakeeping calculations, Paramarine uses ProteusF and sea-keeping operability
objects to compute the motions of the vessel. ProteusF is a frequency domain seakeeping module
based on a 2D Rankine source solution of the hydrodynamic problem. The RAO's are calculated by
solving the 5 degrees of freedom (Sway, Heave, Roll, Pitch and Yaw) by considering the
hydrodynamic reaction/diffraction, hydrostatic restoring, viscous (from empirical methods) and
incident wave (Froude-Krylov) forces. Short-term response statistics are calculated by the
convolution of the RAO's and wave spectrum. This analysis was done to understand the excessive
rolling of the submarine in high sea where the roll damping is too less. The module solves the
general equation for roll motion as given below:-

(1)

In the LHS of the equation, the first term is the inertial term, the second one is the roll damping term
(radiation and viscous), which is the crux of the argument, and the last term is the restoring
moment. The RHS of the above equation is the wave exciting moment in roll.
Since Paramarine uses frequency domain approach, large number of cases could be simulated
within a short period of time. But it is to be noted that the viscous effects considered in the package
have been estimated from empirical methods and hence would require further analysis using a
RANSE based CFD package for a more realistic result.

80
Submarine motion calculations
Seakeeping calculations to estimate the amplitude of roll motion was undertaken for both the
models (bare hull and appended hull) with the following input conditions:-
(a) Speed: 0 kn, 2 kn, 4 kn, 6 kn, 8 kn and 10 kn
(b) Sea State: 2,3,4,5 and 6
(c) Heading: 0 to 360 degrees at step of 15 deg. (Results complied for 0,45,90,135 and 180 deg.)
(d) Spectrum: Bretschneider
(e) Long crested (2D) and Short crested (3D) seas
The calculations were done for 4 combinations of hull forms:
(a) Bare hull - Long crested (2D) sea
(b) Bare hull - Short crested (3D) sea
(c) Appended hull - Long crested (2D) sea
(d) Appended hull - Short crested (3D) sea
Bretschneider spectrum was used for the calculations. The spectrum equation and the parameters
specified are

(2)

Table 1: Bretschneider spectrum characteris cs

Sea State Mean Period(sec) Significant Wave height(m)
2 7.5 0.5
3 7.5 1.25
4 8.8 2.5
5 9.7 4.0
6 12.4 6.0

The generated spectrum and the roll RAO are multiplied to obtain the roll response spectrum. The
results for all the hull configurations for different combination of speeds (0,2,4,6,8 and 10 knots),
sea states(2,3,4,5 and 6) and wave headings(0,45,90,135 and 180 degrees), a total of 150 cases
were compiled. The result for a particular case is given below.

81
 Table 2: Roll RMS value in degrees for long crested sea condi ons in
Sea State 4 at different speed and headings

Heading (deg) Speed in knots

0 2 4 6 8 10
0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
45 12.4 4.6 3.4 2.6 2.0 1.6
90 19.3 6.8 5.0 4.1 3.5 3.0
135 12.4 3.9 2.6 2.0 1.6 1.3
180 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

It can be noticed from Table 2 above that the roll RMS value is maximum when the submarine is
stationary (V = 0 kn) and decreases as speed increases. It could also be noted that roll RMS value is
maximum at beam seas and zero for following and head sea in long crested sea condition. In short
crested sea conditions, all the above statements hold true except that the value of roll RMS is non-
zero in following and head seas. All the above results are as expected.

Table 3 (a): Roll RMS value in degrees for long crested sea condi ons in beam seas
Sea State Speed in knots
0 2 4 6 8 10
2 2.5 1.0 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.5
3 6.3 2.4 1.9 1.6 1.4 1.3
4 19.3 6.8 5.0 4.1 3.5 3.0
5 33.5 11.7 8.5 6.8 5.8 5.1
6 44.3 15.6 11.3 9.2 7.8 6.9

Table 3 (b): Roll RMS value in degrees for short crested sea condi ons in beam seas
Sea State Speed in knots
0 2 4 6 8 10
2 2.1 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.4
3 5.3 2.0 1.6 1.3 1.1 1.0
4 16.2 5.7 4.1 3.3 2.8 2.4
5 28.1 9.7 7.0 5.6 4.6 4.0
6 37.2 12.9 9.4 7.5 6.3 5.5

82
Tables 3(a) and (b) below give the roll RMS value for beam sea at different speeds and sea state for
long and short crested seas respectively. It can be noted that the value of roll RMS value increases
with sea state and decreases with increase in speed. It may also be noted that the value of roll RMS
is lesser for short crested sea condition than long crested sea condition as expected.
Table 4 gives the comparison of roll RMS for long crested and short sea conditions at different
speeds for both bare hull and appended hull in beam seas at sea state 6. It can be noted that at low
speeds (0 and 2 kn), the roll amplitude for the model with appendages is considerably high than for
the appended hull. At higher speeds (4kn and above), the roll amplitude for the model with
appendages is less than for the bare hull model, as the fin effects increases with speed.

Table 4: Roll RMS value comparison for long and short crested seas at sea state 6

Speed (kn) Bare Hull Appended Hull

Long Crested Short Crested Long Crested Short Crested
0 21.8 16.8 44.3 37.2
2 14.5 11.2 15.6 12.9
4 11.5 8.9 11.3 9.4
6 9.8 7.5 9.2 7.5
8 8.6 6.6 7.8 6.3
10 7.7 5.9 6.9 5.5

50
45
40
35
Roll RMS(Degree)

30
25 Bare hull(2D sea)
Bare hull(3D sea)
20
Appended hull(2D sea)
15
Appended hull(3D sea)
10
5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Speed(Kn)

Figure 5: Roll RMS value for long (2D) and short (3D) crested sea condi ons

83
NORDFORSK Criteria
NORDFORSK criteria (Table 5) were referred which specifies the maximum permissible roll angle for
different scenarios as given below and the operability plot were generated for wave heights of 4m
and 6m corresponding to sea state 5 and 6.

Table 5: NORDFORSK Seakeeping Criteria for Roll

Descrip on RMS Roll Mo on
Light manual Work 6°
Heavy Manual Work 4°
Intellectual work 3°

Using the above criteria, operability plots were generated in Paramarine for different speeds and
headings for a particular wave height. Green colour indicates safe zone where the submarine can
be operated and the RMS roll is less than the limiting roll angle and red colour indicates the zone
where the RMS roll is more than the limiting roll angle. It can be inferred from the plots below that
as the roll criteria are becoming stringent from figures 6 to 8, the area of safe operation is
decreasing as expected. It may also be noted that the area of safe operation reduces with
increasing wave height. These plots would form part of the 'Seakeeping Instructions' issued to the
crew to aid them in operating the submarine at various scenarios.

(a) (b)

Figure 6: Operability plot for light manual work (a) wave height 4m (b) wave height 6m

84
 (a) (b)

Figure 7: Operability plot for heavy manual work (a) wave height 4m (b) wave height 6 m

(a) (b)

Figure 8: Operability plot for intellectual work (a) wave height 4 m (b) wave height 6 m

Comparison of roll RMS values

Data on roll motion of Collins class submarine at different sea states in beam seas is available [9]. It
is important to compare the results obtained for the present submarine with these data, which is of
an existing submarine. The roll RMS values for the present submarine and the Collins class
submarine are plotted against significant wave heights in Figure 9.

85
 Figure 9: Comparison of roll RMS values

From Figure 9 it is observed that the maximum value of roll RMS is about 40 degrees for both the
submarines at a significant wave height of 6m for zero speed in beam seas, also both the curves at 0
kn show a very good match. However at 10 knots, the value of roll RMS values for Collins class
submarine is higher by about 40%. It is to be noted that in both the cases the value of roll RMS drops
drastically at higher speeds. It is observed that the higher surface displacement and draft of 1300t
and 1.3m respectively, for Collins class submarine is causing higher roll motions at a speed of 10
knots.
The CFD commercial software Star CCM+ is used for the numerical hydrodynamic study. It uses an
“Algebraic MultiGrid Semi-Implicit Method for Pressure-Linked Equations solver” (AMG SIMPLE)
for solving the discretized linear system iteratively. It also provides a powerful semi-automatic
meshing tool, which allows the operator to generate both surface and volume mesh. The mesh is
automatically generated upon the operator's inputs and is of good quality. Furthermore, the
software has ability to automatically wrap surfaces in to ensure a complete closed model.

Geometrical Model Creation

The model was exported in parts (i.e. bare hull and appendages separately) from Paramarine. Then
the main fluid domain is specified, as per the ITTC recommendations, and a sub - domain is
modelled just containing the model of the submarine to enable volumetric control for capturing the
desired parameters in a better way.

86
Domain Discretisation
The volume mesh is the mathematical description of the space or geometry of the problem. Star
CCM+ offers three different types of volume mesh; tetrahedral, polyhedral and trimmed mesh. Of
the three models the trimmer meshing model is more likely to produce a good quality mesh for
most situations and the same was chosen for the present study. The meshed models are shown in
figures 10 and 11 below.

Figure 10: Meshed model

Figure 11: Finer meshed control surfaces

87
Physical Conditions
Several physical models are activated to simulate the forces acting on the hull. The simulation
models the behaviour of two fluids (air and water) within the same continuum, and uses the
Volume of Fluid model to do so. It is possible to define transient boundary conditions on the free
surface using the VOF wave physics model. The VOF model generates a number of field functions
that are based on wave parameters defined by the user. These field functions can be used as
boundary and initial conditions in appropriate nodes on the object tree. As there are two fluids in
different phases, the Eulerian Multiphase model is activated, and the effect of centre of gravity
acting on both is included using the gravity model. The effect of turbulence on the fluid is modelled
using the default K-Epsilon turbulence model.
For this study, the following were selected in the Physics module:-
(a) Implicit Unsteady from the time group
(b) Multiphase mixture from the material group
(c) Volume of fluid (VOF) from the multiphase model group
(d) Turbulent from the viscous regime group
(e) K-Epsilon turbulence from the Reynolds – Averaged Turbulence group
(f) Gravity from optional physics model group
(g) VOF waves from optional physics model group

Boundary Conditions
The numerical solution of the equations of fluid motion, for any given hydrodynamic problem
requires boundary conditions to be defined. These represent a unique description of the state of
the flow at the geometrical boundaries of the 3D space within which the equations are to be
modelled.
The domains with boundary conditions and meshed models are depicted in the figure 12. The
domain dimensions were fixed as per the IITC guideline 7.5-03-04-01. Darker region in the figure
below indicates the sub-domain, the dimensions of which are kept as same as the domain in the
longitudinal and transverse direction. In the vertical direction, it captures the free surface and has
been meshed finer than the domain.
The boundary conditions specified in this study are elaborated below in Table 6. Velocity inlet was
specified at starboard, top, bottom and forward. The physical value was set as 0 m/s for all the
velocity inlets except for starboard, where the field function, 'velocity of beam waves' was chosen.
This automatically calculates the velocity of the beam waves from the wave height and wave period
specified earlier. However for simulations with forward speed, the hull is stationary and there is an
option in the software to specify additional velocity in the opposite direction, which is similar to the
hull moving forward. Since the wave was generated from the starboard side and propagating to
port, pressure outlet was specified as the boundary on port and aft so that the energy of the wave
gets dissipated and no reflection from the wall occurs. At the hull, a no-slip wall condition was
specified so that the fluid will have zero velocity relative to the boundary.

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 Figure 12: Domain and set up of Boundary Conditions

Table 6: Boundary condi ons

Surface Boundary condi on Physical value
Starboard Velocity inlet Velocity of beam waves
Forward Velocity inlet 0 m/s
Top Velocity inlet 0 m/s
Bo om Velocity inlet 0 m/s
A Pressure outlet Hydrosta c pressure of beam waves
Port Pressure outlet Hydrosta c pressure of beam waves
Hull Wall no slip

Solver Settings
STAR-CCM+ uses a Finite Volume Method (FVM). In outline the numerical algorithm consists of the
following steps:-
(a) Integration of the governing equations of fluid flow over all the (finite) control volumes of the
domain
(b) Discretisation – conversion of the resulting integral equations into a system of algebraic
equations
(c) Solution of the algebraic equations by an iterative method

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In this study the solver characteristics specified are as follows:-
(a) Solver:- Unsteady, implicit
(b) Turbulence model:- Realisable K – ε turbulent
(c) Wall treatment:- Two layer all y + wall treatment
(d) Multiphase flow model:- Volume of Fluid (VOF), gravity
(e) Dynamic Fluid Body Interaction (DFBI):- The DFBI module couples fluid flow with body motions.
The solution is achieved by formulating and solving the equations of motions in addition to
solving the RANS equations. In this study the body is allowed to rotate about x-axis and translate
in z-axis, i.e. roll and heave.
(f) Stopping criteria. The following stopping criteria were specified:-
(g) Maximum inner iteration = 5
(h) Maximum physical time = 40 sec
(I) Maximum steps = 1000

Post-processor
Some of the data visualization tools that are equipped in the software and were used for this study
are:-
(a) Domain geometry and grid display
(b) Vector plots
(c) Line and shadow contour plots
(d) 2D and 3D surface plots
(e) Reporting, Monitoring and Plotting
(f) Exporting scenes for scene animation

Simulations Parametric Study

The geometry was imported from Paramarine and the model was meshed, initial and boundary
conditions specified and various simulations were undertaken for the following:-
(a) Grid dependence study
(b) Time step dependence study
(c) Influence of wave period on roll amplitude
(d) Influence of increasing speed on roll amplitude

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Dependence of roll motion on wave period
The natural roll period of the submarine was calculated as 8.15 sec using the formula,

(3)

where k = radius of gyration for roll = 0.4 B

GMT = Transverse metacentric height = 0.478 m
Simulations were carried out keeping the speed, time step and wave height same to find out the
effect of wave period on roll amplitude. The plot obtained from 4 iterations has been super
imposed and is given in figure 13. It can be concluded from the analysis that the roll amplitude is
maximum at 8 sec, which is close to the natural roll period of the submarine calculated using the
empirical formula at (3.4)

Figure 13: Comparison of roll amplitude for different wave period

Free Oscillation Test

Free oscillation tests were conducted to estimate the natural roll period of the submarine. The
equation to describe free rolling of the submarine may be written as,

(4)

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 Figure 14: Set up in Star-CCM+ for free oscillation test

Set up for the test is shown in figure 14. For undertaking this in the software, the whole domain was
tilted by 20 degrees about x-axis. It was then subjected to flat waves (calm water) and the actual
draft was specified. When simulated, the disturbance decays and the natural period of roll could be
estimated. Given below is the result of free oscillation test. It can be observed from the Figure 15
that the peaks occur at a time interval of 8 seconds.

Figure 15: Free Oscillation test

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Dependence of roll motion on forward speed
As speed increases the roll amplitude decreases, was one of the major conclusions from
Paramarine. This was to be cross verified in Star-CCM+. For that purpose, keeping wave height,
wave period and time step as same, the speed was varied and the obtained result is given in
figure 16.

Figure 16: Comparison of roll amplitude for forward speed

It can be concluded from the above analysis that the roll amplitude decreases as the speed
increases. The above plot shows the roll responses of the submarine for speeds of 2.0 and 8.0
knots.

Roll motions in Beam Seas

After establishing the model, simulations were carried to estimate the amplitude of roll motion
with the following input conditions and the results are given in table 7.
(a) Wave Height(m): 1,3 and 5
(b) Wave Period(sec): 6 and 8
(c) Speed(kn): 0, 4, 8 and 10
(d) Time step: 0.005 sec
(e) Simulation time: 40 sec
(f) Wave considered: Stokes 5th order

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 Table 7: Roll mo on amplitude in beam seas
H (m) T (s) VS (kn) ΦRMS(Deg)
1 6 0 6.5
1 6 4 6.2
1 6 8 5.5
1 6 10 4.5
1 8 0 21.1
1 8 4 19.1
1 8 8 15.5
1 8 10 11.1
3 6 0 17.9
3 6 4 16.4
3 6 8 14.8
3 7 0 26.7
3 8 0 41.5
3 8 4 40.4
3 8 8 36.6
5 6 0 19.0
5 6 4 19.1
5 6 8 18.6
5 7 0 32.8
5 8 0 47.0
5 8 4 46.2
5 8 8 42.0

Free Stream Characteristics of Control Surface

The purpose of having a control surface on a vessel is to control the motion of the ship. The control
surface may be composed entirely of a single moveable surface or a combination of fixed and
moveable portions. Here the control surface being analysed are the stern planes at the aft portion
of the submarine. In the original configuration of stern plane there is a common tiller, which makes
the stern plane move in the same direction and is used for controlling trim. In the proposed
configuration, they are not interconnected and are independent. Hence they can be moved
independent of each other and therefore used for controlling both trim and roll.

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 Figure 17: Plan view of stern plane in original and proposed configuration

Free stream characteristics were undertaken in Star-CCM+ to estimate the lift force for different
angle of attack and speeds. This was also verified with the data available from NACA report for the
selected shape and was found to be in good agreement.

7. ROLL STABILISATION
Stern planes in a submarine are used to control trim when tilted in the same direction. When tilted
independently to same angle and in opposite directions, the stern plane generates a lift force and
thus a stabilising moment as explained in figure 18. The forces are separated by a distance 2a,
where a is called the characteristic lever, which is the distance between centre of gravity of the
submarine and the point of action of the lift force, which is the centre of pressure. These lift forces
in opposite direction creates a stabilising moment which counters the exciting moment for rolling
due to waves.

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 Figure 18: Layout showing the generation of lift force, exciting moment
and stabilising moment

For achieving this, the stern plane configuration has to be modified as shown in figure 17. There has
to be a separate tiller for each of the stern plane, so that it can be operated independently. The
stern plane considered in this study is a NACA 0025 section with a moveable area of 15.5 m2 and
fixed area of 5.5 m2.
In order to undertake roll stabilisation and estimate the reduced roll amplitude, the roll equation of
motion at (1) has to be modified as given below:-

(5)

In LHS, the first term is the inertial one, the second term is the roll damping term, which is the crux
of the argument, and the last term is the restoring moment.
The RHS of the above equation is the exciting moment provided by the waves and the counter
moment provided by the control surfaces, which is the stern plane here. There should be a phase
difference of π between these moments to reduce the roll motion. The former is calculated using

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Star-CCM+ and the latter by free stream characteristics of the control surfaces as explained above.
Once the moments generated by the stern planes at each angle for different speeds are known,
then equation (5) can be solved to estimate the reduced roll amplitude in Star-CCM+.

CFD Analysis of Stern Planes

Lift characteristics of the stern plane in hydrodynamic flow were studied for the following cases:-
(a) Speed: 4, 8 and 10 kn
(b) Angle of attack: 0 – 35 degrees with step of 5 degree
The boundary conditions specified in this study are elaborated below in Table 8. Velocity inlet was
specified at starboard, port, bottom and forward. The physical value was set as 0 m/s for all the
velocity inlets except for forward, where the flow velocity required was chosen. Pressure outlet was
specified as the boundary on top and aft. At the hull, a no-slip wall condition was specified so that
the fluid will have zero velocity relative to the boundary.
Table 8: Boundary condi ons
Region Boundary condi on Physical value
Domain starboard Velocity inlet 0
Domain forward Velocity inlet Flow velocity
Domain top Velocity inlet 0
Domain bo om Velocity inlet 0
Domain a Pressure outlet Hydrosta c pressure
Domain port Pressure outlet Hydrosta c pressure
Stern plane Wall no slip

After grid dependence study and iteration of time step in the set up shown at figure 19, a model
with 75000 cells is selected and time step has been finalised at 0.005 sec.

Figure 19: Model set up of stern plane with boundary conditions

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From the simulation, lift force generated by the stern plane is obtained as an output for different
angles of attack and speeds. The stabilizing moment due to the lift force generated by the stern
plane for equal and opposite angle of attack at different speeds was obtained by multiplying the lift
force by '2a', where 'a' is the characteristic length. The value of 'a' for the present configuration is
2.5 m. Lift force (L) and stabilising moment (Mst) at different angles of attack and speeds are
summarised in Table 9 below. It is to be noted that the lift force is for a single plane, whereas Mst is
the total stabilising moment generated due to the action of both the planes.

Table 9: Li force and stabilising moment

L (kN)
α(deg) 4 kn 8 kn 10 kn
0 0.12 0.41 0.61
5 5.15 20.58 32.07
10 10.00 39.92 62.21
15 14.80 58.20 92.46
20 19.35 77.21 120.33
25 23.74 94.62 147.37
30 29.60 96.54 146.09
35 31.13 121.54 187.97
Mst (kNm)
α(deg) 4 kn 8 kn 10 kn
0 0.6 2.1 3.1
5 25.8 102.9 160.4
10 50.0 199.6 311.1
15 74.0 291.0 462.3
20 96.7 386.0 601.7
25 118.7 473.1 736.8
30 148.0 482.7 730.4
35 155.6 607.7 939.8

The stabilising moment considered for simulations at 4kn is 148 kNm which corresponds to angle of
attack of 30 degree. For simulations at 8kn and 10 kn, the stabilising moment at angle of attack of 25
degree has been considered i.e. 473 kNm and 737 kNm respectively.

Roll Stabilisation at Different Stern Plane Angles

The calculated moment due to differential action of stern plane at Table 9 would be applied to the
simulations in Table 7 in such a manner that the stabilising moment has a phase difference of π with
the roll exciting moment due to waves. By doing this the reduced amplitude of roll motion could be
estimated. Roll simulation at HW=1m, T W = 8 s; VS = 4 kn is shown in Figure 20 with and without the
action of stern planes.

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 Figure 20: Comparison of roll amplitude. HW = 1m;
T W = 8 s; VS = 4 kn; Stern plane angle = 30 degree
From the above, the following were calculated:-
(a) Actual roll RMS = 19.1 degree
(b) Reduced roll RMS = 9.6 degree
© Percentage reduction = 50 %
Similarly the appropriate stabilizing moment was chosen for each case and all the simulations at
Table 7 were repeated to obtain the effectiveness of stern plane on roll reduction in beam seas and
the results are given at Table 10. It is observed that reduction in roll RMS varies from 30% for wave
height of 5m to 50% for a wave height of 1m. Also it is observed that maximum reduction occurs at
resonance, which is as expected. The comparison plots with and without the action of stern plane
are plotted in figures 21 to figures 34.

Figure 21: Roll amplitude in uncontrolled and controlled mode; HW = 1m; T W = 6 s;

VS = 4 kn; Stern plane angle = 30 degree

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 Table 10: Effec veness of stern plane on roll reduc on in beam seas
H (m) T (s) VS (kn) ΦRMS(Deg) α(Deg) Φ’RMS(Deg) % Reduc on
1 6 0 6.5 - - -
1 6 4 6.2 30 3.6 42
1 6 8 5.5 25 3.5 37
1 6 10 4.5 25 2.9 35
1 8 0 21.1 - - -
1 8 4 19.1 30 9.6 50
1 8 8 15.5 25 8.4 46
1 8 10 11.1 25 6.6 41
3 6 0 17.9 - - -
3 6 4 16.4 30 9.0 45
3 6 8 14.8 25 8.0 46
3 7 0 26.7 - - -
3 8 0 41.5 - - -
3 8 4 40.4 30 28.4 30
3 8 8 36.6 25 25.6 30
5 6 0 19.0 - - -
5 6 4 19.1 30 12.7 34
5 6 8 18.6 25 11.5 38
5 7 0 32.8 - - -
5 8 0 47.0 - - -
5 8 4 46.2 30 29.7 36
5 8 8 42.0 25 27.5 35
2.5 8.8 0 13.5 - - -
4 9.7 0 28.0 - - -

Figure 22: Roll amplitude in uncontrolled and controlled mode; HW = 1m; T W = 6 s;

VS = 8 kn; Stern plane angle = 25 degree

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Figure 23: Roll amplitude in uncontrolled and controlled mode; HW = 1m; T W = 6 s;
VS = 10 kn; Stern plane angle = 25 degree

Figure 24: Roll amplitude in uncontrolled and controlled mode; HW = 1m; T W = 8 s;

VS = 4 kn; Stern plane angle = 30 degree

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Figure 25: Roll amplitude in uncontrolled and controlled mode; HW = 1m; T W = 8 s;
VS = 8 kn; Stern plane angle = 25 degree

Figure 26: Roll amplitude in uncontrolled and controlled mode; HW = 1m; T W = 8 s;

VS = 10 kn; Stern plane angle = 25 degree

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Figure 27: Roll amplitude in uncontrolled and controlled mode; HW = 3 m; T W = 6 s;
VS = 4 kn; Stern plane angle = 30 degree

Figure 28: Roll amplitude in uncontrolled and controlled mode; HW = 3 m; T W = 6 s;

VS = 8 kn; Stern plane angle = 25 degree

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Figure 29: Roll amplitude in uncontrolled and controlled mode; HW = 3 m; T W = 8 s;
VS = 4 kn; Stern plane angle = 30 degree

Figure 30: Roll amplitude in uncontrolled and controlled mode; HW = 3 m; T W = 8 s;

VS = 8 kn; Stern plane angle = 25 degree

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Figure 31: Roll amplitude in uncontrolled and controlled mode; HW = 5 m; T W = 6 s;
VS = 4 kn; Stern plane angle = 30 degree

Figure 32: Roll amplitude in uncontrolled and controlled mode; HW = 5 m; T W = 6 s;

VS = 8 kn; Stern plane angle = 25 degree

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Figure 33: Roll amplitude in uncontrolled and controlled mode; HW = 5 m; T W = 8 s;
VS = 4 kn; Stern plane angle = 30 degree

Figure 34: Roll amplitude in uncontrolled and controlled mode; HW = 5 m; T W = 8 s;

VS = 8 kn; Stern plane angle = 25 degree

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8. CONCLUSIONS
Seakeeping calculations undertaken in Paramarine gave the roll RMS values for different speeds,
sea state and wave directions. It was found that the roll amplitude increases with sea state for same
speed and heading. For a particular sea state and heading, the roll amplitude decreases with
increase in speed. Operability plots generated gave the safe and unsafe area of operation in beam
seas for roll criteria given by NORDFORSK. Maximum roll motion is observed when the heading is
90 deg (Beam sea) in all the cases and it was concluded that there is a need to reduce the roll motion
for better seakeeping of submarine at surface.
The natural roll period was estimated as 8 sec from free oscillation test carried out in Star-CCM+ and
also using empirical formula. Simulations carried out at same wave height and wave period
revealed that as speed increases, the amplitude of roll motion decreases which is observed in the
results from Parmarine also. From the free stream characteristics of the stern plane carried out in
Star-CCM+, lift force for different angles of attack and speeds was generated. From the lift force,
stabilizing moment and lift co-efficient were calculated. Validation with NACA Report No.669 gave
reasonable agreement of the free stream characteristics. The stabilising moment when applied at
a phase difference of 180 degree to the exciting moment caused by waves reduces the amplitude of
roll motion. For wave heights less than 1m, the roll can be controlled and brought within the
NORDFORSK criteria if the stern planes are moved in equal and opposite direction. There is
reduction up to 50% in some cases. However for higher wave heights, the reduction in roll
amplitude is in the range of 30 – 40 %, even though they do not meet the NORDFORSK criteria after
stabilisation.
The present study shows that the unstabilised roll motion of the submarine considered here for
analysis is excessive when it operates at the free surface, due to the wave action. The operability
condition is very critical even in moderate beam seas. The stern planes of a submarine normally are
used in tandem for the submarine diving or surfacing purpose. If these stern planes located at the
aft end on port and starboard sides are used independently in a controlled way, it can be used as roll
stabilising fin too. The present study also throws light into the effectiveness of these stern planes on
roll stabilisation.

Scope for Further Work

(a) The present study has analysed the roll motion of the submarine primarily in regular waves.
More cases of irregular waves could be analysed.
(b) The present study restricts the roll motion while operating at surface. Roll motion at periscope
depth and dived condition could be analysed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was done as part of the Master of Technology Degree of Krishna G Das at IIT Madras,
guided by Prof. P. Krishnankutty.

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REFERENCES
1. Benjamin, M. (2012). Numerical and Experimental Investigation into the effects of Mass
Distribution on the Roll Dynamics of a surfaced submarine. Bachelor of Engineering (Naval
Architecture), Australian Maritime College, Launceston.
2. Burcher, R.. & Rydill, L. (1998). Concepts in Submarine Design. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
3. Bhattacharyya, R. (1978). Dynamics of Marine Vehicles. John Wiley & Sons Inc .
4. Davies, A. (2007). Roll Damping affect of Appendages on a Surfaced Submarine in Beam Seas.
Bachelor of Engineering (Naval Architecture), Australian Maritime College, Launceston.
5. Edward V. Lewis. (1989). Principles of Naval Architecture, Second Revision, volume III: Motion in
Waves and Controllability. The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers.
6. El-Atm, J. (2006). Roll Motion of a Damaged Submarine in Beam Seas. Bachelor of Engineering
(Naval Architecture), Australian Maritime College, Launceston
7. Fedor, R.(2009). Simulation of a lunch and recovery of an UUV to an submarine. Master Thesis in
Naval Architecture. KTH Marina System.
8. Guideline on Use of RANS Tools for Manoeuvring Prediction, ITTC – Recommended Procedures
and Guidelines. 7.5 – 03 – 04 – 01
9. Hedberg, S. (2006). Investigation of Submarine Roll Behaviour. ASC Pty Ltd, Adelaide.
10. Kaeding, Y,(2006). Unified Approach to Ship Seakeeping and Maneuvering by a RANSE Method.
Institut f¨ur Fluiddynamik und Schiffstheorie, Technische Universit¨at Hamburg-Harburg
11. Letter, B. (2009). Numerical and Experimental Roll Response and Decay of a Surfaced
Submarine. Bachelor of Engineering (Naval Architecture), Australian Maritime College,
Launceston.
12. Lund, W. L. B. (2005). Parameters that Effect the Roll of a Surfaced Submarine in Beam Seas.
Bachelor of Engineering (Naval Architecture), Australian Maritime College, Launceston
13. Marshallsay, P.G. and Eriksson, A.M. (2012). Computational Fluid Dynamics as a tool to assess
the hydrodynamic performance of a submarine. 18th Australian Fluid Mechanics Conference.
14. Practical Guidelines for Ship CFD Applications, ITTC – Recommended Procedures and
Guidelines. 7.5 – 03 – 02 – 03
15. Proceedings of 26th ITTC – Volume I. The Seakeeping Committee
16. Santhosh Kumar, M, S., Avinash, S. (2013). Design of an Air Independent Propulsion Attack
Submarine. PG Diploma in Naval Construction, IIT Delhi
17. Thornhill, E., & Hermanski, G. (2008). Numerical and Experimental Analysis of Surfaced
Submarine Roll Decay Behaviour. Journal of Ocean Technology, 3(1), 91-100.

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18. User Manual – PARAMARINETM Version8.0.3 from QinetiQ GRC
19. User Manual – Star- CCM+ Version 8.06.005 from CD-adapco
20. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Type_VII_submarine
21. http://sricharantt.webs.com/vishakapatnam.htm
22. http://www.hnsa.org/ships/albacore.htm
23. http://science.howstuffworks.com/transport/engines-equipment/submarine.htm
24. http://www.naval-technology.com/projects/submarine
25. http://www.modelcars.com/revell-germany-new-german-submarine-u212-a-class.html
26. http://www.naval-technology.com/projects/submarine
27. http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/NAVY/Submarines
28. http://indiannavy.nic.in/naval-fleet/submarines-service
29. http://indiannavy.nic.in/cns-speeches/farewell-press-conference-outgoing-cns
30. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/india/project-76.htm
31. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INS_Arihant.
32. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/indiahome/indianews/article-3027893/India-s-Scorpene-
submarine-INS-Kalvari-launched-sea-trials.html

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Author's Biodata
Lt Cdr Krishna G Das is a M.Tech in Ocean Engineering from IIT Chennai, 2015. During his career of 11
years in Indian Navy, he has served as Deputy Director Naval Design (Submarine Design Group) and
as Staff Officer (Naval Construction) in Submarine Headquarters. He is presently serving as Deputy
Manager (Fabrication) in Naval Dockyard, Visakhapatnam where is undertaking structural repairs
to submarines. His area of research interest is submarine hydrodynamics. He has been awarded a
commendation by Scientific Advisor to Raksha Mantri for undertaking seakeeping calculations of
submarines in 2013.

Co - Author's Bio data

Prof P Krishnankutty is a PhD in Ocean Engineering from IIT Chennai, 1994 and M Eng in Ocean
Engineering from Stevens Institute of Technology, New Jersey, USA,1994. During his teaching
career of 35 years, he was faculty in Department of Ship Technology, CUSAT and thereafter in
Department of Ocean Engineering, IIT Chennai. He is a member of Society of Naval Architects and
Marine Engineers, USA; Member of American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME); Member of
International Association of Hydraulic Engineering and Research; Life Member of Ocean Society of
India, Cochin and Indian Society for Technical Education, New Delhi.

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 article

9 APPLICATION OF COMPUTATIONAL FLUID

DYNAMICS (CFD) AND HIGH PERFORMANCE
COMPUTING (HPC) FOR SUBMARINE DESIGN
(Devinder Singh Pannu SC 'E' (Aniruddha Joshi
Director Naval Design (SDG) Tata Consultancy Services)

1. INTRODUCTION
The basic submarine design approaches can be roughly classified into three major approaches.
Each of these approaches has its own advantages and disadvantages.
The empirical/statistical approach involves design based on the past available data. These
approaches combine a rather simple physical model and regression analysis to determine required
coefficients either from one parent design or from a set of designs. The coefficients may be given in
form of constants, formulae, or curves. It is fast, simple and cheap; however, has limited
applicability. Detailed analysis cannot be performed with this approach. It is based on statistical
evaluation of old designs and would have very limited applicability to newer designs. Extensive
design data for submarine is not readily available.
Another approach is experimental approach, in which tests are performed on the scaled down
models, required information is extracted and it is scaled (transformed) to full-scale model. Here
main uncertainty is scaled down model to full-scale model correlation. The physics differs as the
scale of the model changes introducing uncertainty about the results.
Numerical approach allows to perform detailed analysis on true scale model and can be used right
from the concept level thus reducing total design cost and design cycle time. However, it requires
special resources i.e. expertise in tool, domain knowledge, software and high end computer
hardware. This paper discussed about applications of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and High
Performance Computing (HPC) technologies for submarine design.

2. CFD TOOL FOR SUBMARINE DESIGN

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is a branch of fluid mechanics that uses numerical analysis and
algorithms to solve and analyze problems involvingfluid flow, heat transfer, mass transfer, chemical
reactions, and related phenomena. CFD is an integral part of the engineering design and analysis
work flow for many industries like Aerospace, Automotive, Energy, Oil and Gas, Life Science, Marine
etc.
In CFD, computers are used to perform the calculations required to simulate the interaction of
liquids and gases with surfaces defined by boundary conditions. With high performance computing
(HPC), better and faster solutions can be achieved for complex simulation scenarios.
The typical product design process includes concept design, detailed design and testing. This is an
iterative process, which keeps on repeating until the product meets the expected performance.
With the help of CFD and HPC this iterative process can be shortened to one or two interations. This
virtual prototyping approach is an alternative to expensive scale model building and testing. This

111
can save time in evaluating shape changes or modifications to submarines. CFD can be used in
assessment of submarine designs, both in early stages of the concept design and in later stages of
the design process.
The fundamental basis of almost all CFD problems is the Navier–Stokes equations. The governing
equations for an unsteady, three-dimensional, compressible, viscous flow are:

4. CFD METHODOLOGY
The basic CFD methodology is described in three major steps pre-processing, simulations and post-
processing as described below and shown in Figure 1.
Pre-Processing:
l 3D CAD geometry can be imported into pre-processing software. Usually 3D CAD geometry
prepared by the designer.
l On this CAD geometry, cleanup operation is performed. This process involves
removal/simplification of geometry features which are of no interest for CFD analysis.
l On cleaned geometry computational domain is defined. The entire computational domain
discretized into number of smaller control volumes known as volume cells. A grid or mesh is a
collection of these volume cells. The grid generation involves defining the structure and
topology and then generating a grid on that topology.
• Entire pre-processing is very time consuming process, it can take few weeks to months based on
the geometry complexity.

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Solving:
l In solving stage, the governing equations are solved for specified boundary conditions like
pressure, velocity and temperature etc on HPC platform for entire computational domain.
Post-Processing:
l Post-processing of the results is done to study the detailed velocity, pressure, temperature
contours and other post-processed data. The time for this step will vary from hrs to days based
on the details of post-processing.

Figure : Typical CFD Workflow

This basic methodology need to be developed further for particular problem in terms of mesh
topology, boundary conditions, solver settings etc.

4. CFD ANALYSIS OF HABITABLE COMPARTMENT

Physically it was observed that some cabins in habitable compartment are getting relatively hotand
not getting adequate flow. Solution to this problem using traditional experimental methods has
limitations as described in section 4.1. Hence, it was decided to undertake the CFD analysis of
habitable compartment as detailed in section 4.2.
4.1 Limitations of Experimental Methods
With multiple flow outlets inside the cabins, flow modification at one outlet would affect the flow
at all other outlets.

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Here each modification involves preparation of design, CAD geometry/drawing generation, and
prototyping of the parts. These modification needs to be installed and flow and temperature
measurements needs to be carry out. This is costly and time consuming process.
Further, the end results of the process are not assured as this would be a trial and error method.
Also detailed flow and temperature distribution patterns inside the cabins would be unknown.
4.2 CFD Analysis
The aim of the CFD study was to analyze the flow distribution and temperature patterns inside
habitable compartment and subsequently to explore the possibilities to improve the flow &
thermal state overall.
The generic CFD methodology described in Section 3 is applied and the details are given
subsequent subsections.
4.2.1 Model Simplification
The geometry of Habitable compartment considered for the analysis included trunking, cabins,
bunks, lockers, lights, Punkha Louvres etc. Cleanup operations were performed on the received
CAD model and human dummy was added to get more realistic results. Final model used for the
CFD analysis is as shown in Figure 2.

Figure : Cleaned up model (Cabins/Punkha Louvres/Trunkings)

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1.2.2 Grid Generation
The entire flow domain (habitable compartment) discretized into number of smaller control
volumes known as volume cells. A grid with around 20 Million tetrahedral elements and with
around 2 Million triangular boundary elements is prepared for analysis. Figure3 shows the surface
grid generated for entire habitable compartment.

Figure : Surface grid for CFD study

4.2.3 Boundary and Initial Conditions

After discretizing the flow domain, boundary conditions are applied at the boundaries of the
computational domain. The simulation starts from an initial guess and uses an iterative method to
reach a steady state solution.
4.2.4 Solver Setup
For this case, Steady state simulation is set up with Semi-implicit pressure linked equation (SIMPLE)
as pressure-velocity coupling algorithm and second-order discretization scheme for advection
term. Realizable k-e turbulence model is coupled with viscous model. Convergence criterion of 1e-
3 is chosen for all the residuals from the viscous model and 1e-6 for energy.
4.2.5 Results and Analysis
With CFD, detailed flow and temperature distribution analysis inside the cabins was done. The flow
rate though each of the outlet was identified. The study revealed the uneven flow distribution in
various cabins. The cabins which were close to flow source, were getting excess airflow (up to 120%
surplus), whereas the cabins far from flow source were having significantly less airflow (up to 85%
deficit).
Then with introduction of orifices and modifications to trunking the flow was balanced.Further, the
distribution of the flow inside the cabin was improved with modified Punkha Louvre design for both
central and individual location as shown in Figure4.

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 Figure : Velocity streamlines comparison

Optimized result achieved with an iterative process. The final flow balancing was achieved within
15% and minimum flow requirement through each Punkha Louvre was met.Four different designs
for Punkha Louvre and two major design modifications to the trunking layout were implemented.
The temperature inside the cabins found less than 250C with optimized trunking along with new
punkha louvre design.

Figure : Temperature contours comparison

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5. GENERAL CFD APPLICATIONS IN SUBMARINEDESIGN
The other areas of submarine design where CFD can be applied are enumerated in subsequent
paragraphs.
5.1 External Hydrodynamics
The external flow CFD analysis as shown in Figure 6 is commonly used to study the behavior of
objects submerged in continuous non static fluids, it aims to determine how efficiently a body can
move through the medium and how they affect each other in the process.

Figure : External Hydrodynamics Application Areas

Evaluating the pressure distribution on the structure generated by the resistances of the fluid, the
engineers can optimize the design to decrease the amount of energy needed to move the body or
the disturb impact on the fluid patch that leaves the pass of the structure.
5.2 Internal Hydrodynamics
l Dynamic Loads across a tank structure as a result of the motion of the free surface fluid confined
inside the tank are an important safety issue. CFD can be used to track the fluid motion and
analyze the sloshing impact loads as shown in Figure 8 where experimental and CFD results
comparison is shown.
l Another example of internal hydrodynamics flow though pipes which can be done using CFD. To
solve system level flow and thermal modeling problems 1D simulation tool e.g. Flowmaster can
be used.
5.3 Acoustics
The evaluation of the noise generated by a submarine is of most importance in defense space. The
acoustic signature of a submarine is made up of a number of individual elements which includes
Machinery noise, Cavitation noise and Hydrodynamic noise.
Propeller operates in spatially non-uniform wake of the submarine. The propeller thrust and
boundary pressure of the Submarine Hull are fluctuating, which generates significant acoustic
signature. A general representation of this is as given in Figure 9.

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Combination of the CFD and finite element models are the trend for future studies of the propeller
induced submarine hull vibration and underwater noise radiation. The numerical prediction of the
noise and vibration of a submarine under axial excitation from a propeller and excitation from the
flow noise induced by the pulsating pressure of the hull can be evaluated by CFD as shown in
Figure 10.

Figure : Internal Hydrodynamics Application Areas (Tank Structure)

Figure : Flow induced Acoustics

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 Figure : Scattering of acoustic waves around Generic Submarine predicted by CFD

6. CONCLUSIONS
Traditional approaches used in the submarine design have limitations in terms of time, cost and
accuracy.
Numerical approach using CFD and HPC allows to perform detailed analysis on true scale model
and can be used right from the concept level thus reducing total design cost and design cycle time.
Number of prototypes when CFD is integral part of the design process is significantly lowerthan the
traditional design cycle.
CFD is a promising tool which allows the parametric design, design evaluation and systematic
optimization. CFD has a vast applicability to submarine design; hence it should be an integral part of
the design process.

2. REFERENCES
a) https://www.ntnu.edu/documents/20587845/1266707380/2015Trondheim_Submarine
DesignLight.pdf
b) https://www.ntnu.edu/documents/20587845/1266707380/2012Chennai_SubmarineDesign.pdf
c) Marshallsay P G and Eriksson A M Use of Computational Fluid Dynamics as a Tool to Assess the
Hydrodynamic Performance of a Submarine 18th Australasian Fluid Mechanics Conference 2012
d) Rodriguez S External Incompressible 3D flow CFD Analysis OpenFOAM Tutorial
http://www.libremechanics.com
e) http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_916.html
f) Khezzar L, Seibi&Goharzadeh A C Water Sloshing in Rectangular Tanks An Experimental Investigation &
Numerical Simulation International Journal of Engineering (IJE), Volume (3) : Issue (2) 2010
g) Yingsan Wei, Yongsheng Wang, Ke Ding and Jian Fu Submarine under water structure-borne noise and
flow due to propeller excitation, Acoustics Australia, Vol. 2, No. 2, P. 122-127 (2012)
h) D.A Jones, D.B. Clarke, I.B. Brayshaw, J.L. Barillon and B.Anderson The calculation of Hydrodynamic
coefficients for Underwater Vehicles, DSTO Platforms Sciences Laboratory, July 2002.
i) Shang Z Emerson D R and GU X Numerical Investigations of Cavitation around a High Speed Submarine
using OpenFOAM with LES 2012

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Author's Biodata

Capt DS Pannu (Retd) Sc 'E' is presently posted as a Director Naval Design (Submarine Design group).
He is heading the group responsible for design of systems required for maintaining habitable micro
climate onboard underwater platforms. He has been closely associated with indigenization of
equipment related to Air Regeneration systems and improving the air flow pattern and
temperature contures using CFD analysis in Habitable compartments.

Aniruddha Joshi has been working with M/s TCS from last 6 years. He is an aluminous of IIT, Delhi
and completed Masters Degree in Thermal Engineering in 2005. He has more than 10 years of
experience in diversified CFD domain like General Fluid Flow and Thermal Analysis, Automotive
Aerodynamics, Life Sciences, Climate Control, 1D Simulation Software, Vehicle and Engine Full and
Part Load Testing, Emission and onboard Diagnostic Development.etc.

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 article

10 INTEGRATED CONTROL SYSTEMS AND SMART

SENSORS FOR FUTURE SUBMARINE

(Cdr Yoginder Sharma)

Abstract
1. Modern submarines are one of the most complex types of machines that exist today, only
beaten by space shuttles. A submarine operating autonomously in deep waters is an extremely
potent and lethal arm of any defense force. The historical intentions of military submarine are
attacking enemy surface ships or other submarines. Today they also serve as portable missile
launchers and their subtle nature, makes them suitable for surveillance and reconnaissance
missions. In recent years, technological advances in the field of control system design,
networking technologies and development of smart sensors have led to integration of different
control systems onboard into a single system providing central control and monitoring of
various typical systems distributed across the length and breadth of the submarine.

Introduction
2. Submarines, i.e., underwater vehicles, come in many shapes, depending on if they are intended
for underwater research, maintenance or military purposes. A typical military submarine
nowadays is a costly, highly sophisticated vessel, with a very strict requirement for accuracy,
reliability and safety in all the aspects during design, production, trials and operations. Over the
past few decades, the submarines have evolved, turning the cheap solution they were, into a
tactical and strategic solution that must fulfill precise tasks and last for decades.

Typical Control Systems

3. There are various control systems onboard typical submarines which are responsible for
automatic / remote control and monitoring of different systems. The platform systems /
equipment are generally distributed throughout the Boat in the form of stand-alone systems
with very little interconnectivity among the units. This approach lead to installation of multiple
equipment, employing a variety of user interfaces, which required more space than desired. It
also promoted congestion of control room because of different control panels and displays.
Different control systems on board a submarine are listed below:-
(a) Propulsion plant control system responsible for control and monitoring of main propulsion
system.
(b) System for control and monitoring of general engineering ship systems to ensure
survivability, comfortable habitability and execution of special functions.
(c) Submarine motion and position control system to control the motion of s u b m a r i n e b y
controlling the movement of the rudder and horizontal planes in all regimes.

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 (d) Data logging and retrieval system.
(e) Power supply distribution, control and monitoring system to provide control and
monitoring of following systems:-
(i) Power generation and distribution equipment.
(ii) Reserve propulsion motors.
(iii) AC/DC switch boards.
(iv) Frequency converters.
(f) Depth measuring system to measure the depth of Boat with respect to surface by using
depth sensors.
(g) Air regeneration system which is basically an electrochemical process through which fresh
air for breathing is generated while beneath the sea.
(h) Battery health monitoring system to monitor parameters like Voltage, Electrolyte level,
Temperature, etc of the battery bank.
(j) Gas monitoring system to monitor concentration of various gases in different
compartments as well as in battery area.
4. Individual conventional control systems had their own control panels / consoles, system
controller, network of sensors, actuators and associated cabling. Provision of redundancy at
every level of the system added to the number of hardware requirements for the individual
system leading to many prominent disadvantages like:-
(a) Large number of controllers.
(b) More number of operators required for the system.
(c) Additional cooling requirements.
(d) Complex cable routing.
(e) Multiple and complex interfacing requirements.
(f) Congestion of limited space available onboard.
(g) Effect on overall weight of the submarine.

Integrated Control System

5. Modern techniques allow physically distributed equipment to be networked together to derive
the maximum benefit of synthesis of data from different sources. This fused data can then be
accessed through integrated display and central control cabinet which promotes higher
operational efficiency, space optimisation and smooth decision making process for a new
“Integrated Control System”. Various field equipment / sensors, spread across the length and
breadth of the submarine are interfaced with Digital Input / Output Controllers. The digital
signal / data, from I/O controllers, through Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs), are

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 interfaced with the redundant fibre optic network running throughout the submarine. The
data, through the network, is available at the Central Control Panel (CCP) located at a prominent
place (Control Room) in the submarine. The Multifunctional Consoles (MFC) or the Central
Control Panels are operated in pair, in hot standby mode, to ensure redundancy. The system
allows the operators in the control room to monitor and/or control the platform systems
distributed over the submarine.

Integrated Control System Architecture

6. A typical architecture of an Integrated Control System is depicted in Figure 1 below:-

Fig.1 - Typical Architecture of an Integrated Control System

7. Details of various constituents of the Integrated Control System shown in Figure 1 are as
follows:-
(a) Central Consol Panel (CCP).Dual redundant Multi Function Consoles (MFCs) are provided in
the Control Room. Depending on the system monitored, one or several specific picture(s)
can be displayed. CCP is intended for representation of information on display facilities,
entering and processing of operator commands and their transmission to the lower level
devices, control of channel of data exchange reception and processing of information
coming from the equipment of lower level.
(b) Human Machine Interface (HMI). Human Machine Interfaces (HMIs) are intended for local
control and monitoring of various systems as per requirement.

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 (c) Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs).The PLCs provide all the necessary automated
process sequences for all the systems. The controllers are generally distributed onboard
the submarine according to each system. A PLC is a digital computer used for the
automation of electromechanical processes. PLCs are used to capture data and control
machinery. PLCs are relatively simple computers, designed with reliability and durability.
(d) Field Equipment.Various sensors and actuators are the field equipment distributed all over
the submarine.
(e) Dual Redundant Fibre Optic Network.The dual redundant fibre optic network is a bus
running across the submarine. The data communication between the Central Control Panel
and Controllers is through the bus.
8. The term 'Integrated Control System' is generally used to encompass the following systems:-
(a) Propulsion including propeller, prime movers, shaft line, brakes and gearbox.
(b) Propulsion auxiliaries including steering and stabilisation systems, main forced lubrication
system, main lubricating oil transfer and renovation system, low pressure sea water system,
fuel supply renovation and transfer system.
(c) Auxiliaries including refrigeration system, sewage system, fresh water system, bilge and
sullage system.
(d) The electrical system including battery monitoring, power generation and distribution
system.
(e) Nuclear Biological Chemical Defence (NBCD) systems including chilled water system,
ventilation system, low pressure air system, high pressure air system and high pressure sea
water system.
(f) Damage Control including the state of the ship with respect to fire, flooding, smoke,
stability and the operational state. The operational state includes the state and
requirements for hatches and other compartment penetrations.
(g) Inclusion of new integrated systems with provision to take into account the future need to
supply and receive information from Weapons and Navigation systems.
9. Advantages of Integrated Control System are as follows:-
(a) Display.Only two MFCs offer display of parameters of the desired category of systems
against individual displays for each system in the conventional control systems resulting in
optimum space utilisation in the control room.
(b) Cabling.Extensive point to point cabling from individual cabinet to process control
actuators and sensors of the conventional system results in increasing the complexity of the
mesh network. Interface between different systems is through different types of cable.
Single network interface across all levels of the Integrated Control System requires no
special software for communicating over the network thereby providing cost savings in
communication cable material and installation. Further, it facilitates DI/DR and eliminates
complex data network.

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 (c) Bulkhead Penetrations.Reduction in dedicated cables results in reduced number of
bulkhead penetrations.
(d) Operators.Considerable reduction in manpower is achieved due to control and monitoring
from the Central Control Panel when compared to dedicated manned displays for each
conventional system.
(e) Training.Reliable and real-time simulation and training facility available on the Integrated
Control System ensures focused on job training.
(f) Spares.Commonality of spares ensures reusable hardware and software components for
network management thus providing superior solutions.
(g) Reliability.Faster and secure communication is offered on the network. Reliability is not
compromised even on complete (or partial) loss of the PLC of a specific system or its
communication equipment. This would result in transfer of control in local mode for the
installation or half-installation during the repair.
(h) Configurability.Modules are reconfigurable for multiple purposes, therefore, change in one
module will have minimal impact on the rest of the system compared to conventional
systems where rigid interfaces offer little scope for further reconfiguration.
(j) Expansion.The Integrated Control System offers scope for future expansion and a
compatible system can be interfaced with the existing system at a later date.
10. Such integration enhances information and functional capabilities of the crew in the process of
controlling the maritime object, ensuring navigational safety of voyage and use of special
equipment. The advantages of the integrated control system are as follows:-
(a) Considerable improvement of the contents of information about the state of on b o a r d
resources in routine operation mode during damage control and in combat conditions by
means of creation and maintaining the common information environment available for all
functional subsystem.
(b) High performance achieved by means of application of uniform component base common
interfaces and uniform set of operation documents which also improve reparability.
(c) Common interface and advanced facilities for ensuring access to information.
(d) High reliability and endurance owing to functional and structural redundancy.
(e) Opportunity of upgrading the system to obtain additional functional, capability f o r
modernization.
(f) Comprehensive training of operators in training modes.
(g) Besides, the system is upgradable, reconfigurable and it has modernization capability for
meeting the changing functional requirements to modernization of technical facilities
throughout the life cycle of a ship.

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Smart Sensors
11. Conventional Sensors.Traditionally a ship comprises of various machinery and control systems
running hand in hand for performing different functions. These machineries communicate with
the control systems via different parameters like temperature, pressure, speed, etc. measured
at various points of the machinery for control, indication and alarm functions. These different
parameters of the machines are measured using Sensors. For this purpose, the industry has
always and mostly resorted to use of Conventional Sensors. Few drawbacks of conventional
sensors are:-
(a) Communication is unidirectional.
(b) Large amount of cabling is being used both for powering the sensor as applicable and also
for routing the signal from the sensor to the control system.
(c) Limited or no scope for in-situ calibration, settings or range adjustments.
(d) Lack of health monitoring or fault indication status of the instrument.
(e) Individual tagging of sensors for identification is not possible i.e. non addressable.
(f) They need an A to D Converter separately when a digital output is required.
12. Smart Sensor.The modern control systems, being based on computer based network
technology, can utilise smart sensors for achieving various control and monitoring tasks. A
smart sensor is an analog or digital transducer combined with a processing unit and a
communication interface. A smart sensor takes input from the physical environment and uses
built-in computing resources to perform pre-defined functions upon detection of specific input
and then process data before passing it on to the next layer of a network. It has intelligence
capabilities with on-board microprocessor or microcontroller. It is used for digital processing,
analog to digital conversions, and can be used for other purposes like decision making, two-way
communication, and logic functions. Smart sensors enable more accurate and automated
collection of environmental data with reduced error. A typical setup using Smart Sensors
integrated with the control system is depicted in Figure 2. In Figure 2, four smart sensors
measuring pressure, differential pressure, water level and temperature are depicted. The
sensors are interfaced with a two core data bus. The digital data from individual sensors is
multiplexed by a multiplexer with facility for Human Machine Interfacing through a screen and
keyboard. The modulated digital data through a network switch is transmitted over the network
and is available to the Central Control Panel (CCP) for further processing. A portable calibrator /
laptop is used for health check and calibration of sensors.

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 Fig.1 Typical architecture of an Integrated Control System

13. Advantages of Smart Sensors. The various distinct features of smart sensor in comparison to a
conventional sensor like smaller size, low power consumption and bi-directional
communication, make the smart sensors highly efficient. Some of the key features of Smart
sensors are as follows:-
(a) Self-identification (Addressable) with each sensor having its own Identity i.e. address, tag
number and name with self-diagnostic features.
(b) Output is available in analog and digital data in standard (changeable) engineering units
and can be used as per requirement.
(c) Provision for remote/ local in-situ calibration and compensation.
(d) Facility for configurable alarms and parameterization.
(e) Feature of self test and analysis.

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 (f) Considerable reduction in on-board cabling since multiple sensors are interfaced with a
single Data Bus.
(g) Since output is also available in Digital form, it can obviate the requirement of an Analog to
Digital Converter.
(h) These sensors can be loop powered using only two cables to connect multiple sensors
thereby mitigating requirement of individual hard wire connections for individual sensors.
(j) Smart sensors allow change of range of a sensor which is fixed in a conventional sensor. This
allows interchangeability and would reduce Inventory.
14. A comparison between prominent features of Smart sensor versus conventional sensor is
enlisted in Table 1 below:-

Table 1 - Comparison between prominent features of Smart and conven onal sensors
Sl Parameter Conven onal Sensor Smart Sensor
(a) Power Supply & 4 wire 2 wire
Output 3 wire
2 wire
(b) Output Analog or digital Analog + Digital
(c) Calibra on Limited adjustments or No Zero / Span can be adjusted
facility for Zero / Span either locally using digital display /
adjustments Modem or remotely using HMI
(d) Cabling Reduc on No Yes
(e) Interfacing Point to point Point to point Mul -drop loop
(f) Iden fica on No Yes (Each sensor has its own Iden ty
i.e. address, tag number and name)
(g) Self diagnos c func on No Yes, with fault indica on
(h) Sensor Info No Yes
(i) Local Indicator No Yes, with advance features
(j) Interchangeability No Yes, can be set & used for different ranges

Conclusion
15. The Integrated Control System with Smart Sensors will result in a perceptible level of
automation for all the systems. Depending on the frequency of use / availability / safety
constraints suited to each system, it will maintain the highest availability level for the safety
actions, ensure a strict technical and ergonomic coherency between the different control /
monitoring subsystems of each of the submarine systems and homogeneity of the Man
Machine Interfaces with possibility to easily operate reconfigurations between the different
consoles in case of need. The system will relieve the operators from the laborious, simple or
repetitive actions, minimise the risk of control mistakes and will allow the crew to focus on the
more important activities (analysis, supervision, decision, etc), improving, consequently the
reliability and efficiency of the watch team.

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Author's Biodata
1. The Paper, titled Integrated Control Systems and Smart Sensors for Future Submarine has been
prepared by Cdr Yoginder Sharma (51772-N) currently posted as Joint Director at DND (SDG),
IHQ / MoD (Navy). The officer has completed M Tech (Aerospace Engineering) from Defence
Institute of Advanced Technology (Deemed University), Pune and has served onboard INS Delhi
and INS Karmuk as Deputy Electrical Officer.
2. The officer is currently heading Control Hardware Group at Directorate of Naval Design
(Submarine Design Group), New Delhi.

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 article

11 INTEGRATED CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

SYSTEM
by Lt Cdr Aheesh Gaur (DD(PGD)

Summary
1. Integrated Construction Management System (ICMS) is an advanced innovative assimilation
system, which offers a comprehensive single point proactive solution to most of design,
material, manufacturing, planning, trial and quality concerns. Its objective is management of
information through the life cycle of naval vessels, which in turn will increase productivity,
reducing vessels design and manufacturing· schedules, saving costs and improving the
quality of the whole process. It has the power to drastically reduce timelines, costing and
sharply improve durability through simulated outfitting and survivability tests by converting
long thought sequential construction activities into parallel processing. Its tools, techniques
and processes are built on four foundation pillars - Talk Sense, CAD Intent, Virtual Yard and
Unified Database. All these four pillars will work on integration between the Shipbuilding CAD
system and various PLMs.
2. Unified database, the role of data is central to this integration effort. Unified database is a
common repository, covering relevant information, sharable across all stake holders (designers,
yards, OEMs and trial agencies) building a web of interdependencies needed for integration.
Further, to extract meaning from data and power bi-directional harmonization of various CAD /
CAM systems and PLMs. A collative agreed model (Talk sense) will be formulated covering both
static and dynamic associations between data and real-world physical / conceptual objects it
describes. This would include rules for use, exchange and modification of the data. The same
will set a platform for real time correct mapping (one-to-many and vice versa) of dynamic
design changes, ensuring that 2D drawings / 3D models are not only always accurate technically,
ergonomically but also all surrounding environmental effects, specific OEM requirements are
also considered (CAD intent). Prediction of correct construction timelines, Digital mock-up of
critical construction / outfitting activities, identification of possible bottlenecks, slippages and
subsequent proactive remedial actions with auto generated feedback on status of milestones
will be facilitated by concept of Virtual Yard. In totality, ICMS can provide a single point,
comprehensive solution to all construction related activities and that too, on click of a button.

PRESENT SYSTEM
3. In the present scenario of shipbuilding, a very simplistic unidirectional departmental or unit
level CAD (Computer Aided Design) and PLM / PDM (Product Lifecycle Management / Product
Data Management) system harmonization is employed. Until now, the implementation of
different PLM systems is to locally manage all the information being shared by several
departments in a unit (engineering, purchasing, planning, operations, productions, etc). CAD

130
tool is being used to just make and share 3D Models / 2D designs through local PLM. So far, there
is no concept which is employed to make CAD-PLM systems communicate with each other
intelligently and automatically, sharing and using data both effectively and efficiently for
mutual benefits of the organization in totality. Also, a very basic model of data sharing is
employed wherein PLM is used merely as a directory to only access 3D / 2D files and, once
loaded, there is no communication between CAD and PLM software. In such a structure design,
planning, material and quality issues are technically treated separately with no automated
solution. The reason for the same, though these sub-system / units of a project (Designer-PLM,
Yard-PLM Knowledge Management System (KMS), mail servers with pan India / world
connectivity) are available, there is no intelligently bi-directional communication between each
of them. ICMS is the missing link for intelligent bi-directional information exchange system with
facility to extract, harmonize and broadcast the information automatically. Therefore, with
minimal setup cost and superior background data management and harmonization,
tremendous improvement in all spares of construction can be achieved. For details refer
Figure1.

PLMs

DESIGNER DESIGNER
3D MODELs
INTERFACE PDM/PLM
2D DRAWINGs
CAD SYSTEM

OWNER
PREOJECT RELATED
YARD INTERFACE
OEM REQUIREMENTS

DESIGN CHANGE
INTERFACE 1. NO AUTOMATED REQUIRMENTs
PLANNING YARD PLM
FEEDBACK BETWEEN FEEDBACK
ANY SUB-SYSTEMS
PRODUCTION MATERIAL
OEM PLMs 2. NO BACKEND
COMMUNICATION
BETWEEN VARIOUS QA/QC
CAD-PLM SYSTEMS
OEM CAD 3. HIGH PROBABILITY OF ENCOUNTERING
MATERIAL/ PRODUCTION BOTTLENECK AND
QUALITY ISSUE

Fig. 1 - PRESENT UNI-DIRECTIONAL SYSTEM

131
Introduction To Icms
4. ICMS (Integrated Construction Management System) has the power to convert long thought
sequential construction activities into parallel processing through implementation of an advance
network which enables auto information exchange and implementation among all stake holders,
PLMs and CAD systems.
5. ICMS will facilitate effective interoperability between Computer Aided Design (CAD-3D/2D
Models) & Product Lifecycle Management (PLM/PDM Documents) Systems in order to increase
productivity, reduce vessel designs and manufacturing schedules, save huge costs, improve the
quality of whole process and, most importantly, augment current shipbuilding process and
environment to next altitude of customization and automation. Features such as real time feedback
on computer-generated simulations of critical construction activates, auto-updation and
scrutinisation of drawing changes simultaneously by both designer and production with quick
resolution of all material issues can be easily achieved using ICMS. Pre-requisites for implementing
ICMS or any intelligent bi-directional information exchange featuring advanced CAD-PLM
integration are as enumerated below:-
(a) Facility for automated real-time mapping of 2D drawing, DAF, DCR & design query / changes to
3D models.
(b) Sharable data and attributes between CAD and PLM systems in a format understandable
by all such systems.
(c) Auto-updation of documents / data from CAD to PLM.
(d) Product structure in CAD systems should auto-update product structures in PLMs.
(e) Management of all documents generated by CAD systems.
(f) Knowledge sharing / management of all lessons learnt by various sub-systems.

MATERIAL YARD
AGENCIESs PLMs
KMS CAD
SERVERs PLMs

MAIL ICMS OEM

SERVERs PLMs

Fig. 2 – ICMS - QUALITY VESSEL WITH OPTIMIZED TIMELINE

132
Pillers for Intergation
6. A detailed analysis of pre-requisites mentioned in Para 3 have revealed that four pillars, (two for
laying foundation of ICMS and other two for deriving required functionality) are essential for ICMS
namely Unified Database, Talk Sense, CAD Intent, Virtual Yard.
(a) Unified Database. It is a conceptual data model that is capable of expressing information and
interpreting data stored within every department in a system. The logical data structure of
general database management system cannot totally satisfy the requirements for a conceptual
definition of data, view limited scope and bias towards the implementation strategy adopted by
the local data base management system. Therefore, the need to define data from a conceptual
view derived from semantic data modeling techniques i.e. techniques to define the meaning of
data within the context of its interrelationships with other data. Such models are expressed by
binary relation between data elements. This unified data will be stored and accessible to all
stake holders PLM systems depending on their privileges, on both routine and need to know
basis. The interoperability of data / information within a project in ICMS, facilitating effective
and efficient commutation between all stake holder PLMs depends on three main standardized
models for data exchange within departments / units.
(i) Real world (functional) model is a structured representation of the functions activates or
processed of the modeled project.
(ii) Database (information) model represents the structure and semantics of information of the
modeled project.
(iii) Synchronized (dynamic) model is representation of time varying behavioral characteristics
of the modeled project.
(b) Talk Sense. Intelligent bi-directional information exchange between CADPLM system will be
implemented using two mechanisms namely, Broadcasting Mechanism and Harmonization
Mechanism. The information going out from CAD to PLM is termed as broadcasting mechanism.
Likewise, feedback / updations received from PLM to CAD is termed as Harmonization
mechanism. Further, for communication between different agencies employing a variety of CAD
PLM systems, a neutral network framework will be required for communication between these
sub-systems. Details on these models and information exchange mechanism are covered in
technical architecture of ICMS.
(c) CAD Intent. CAD-PLM integration has the potential to do wonders for design management. It
ensures that the design (both 2D & 3D) is both always correct and up to date. Its main advantage
is that the design construction can be set in from designer sitting in some part of country,
feedback by production and added inputs from OEMs ensuring all stake holders requirements
are met, all of this in real time. This will minimize the design change at the time of advance
construction / outfitting stages. Also, using broadcasting and harmonization mechanisms and
standardized vessel tree structure (explained in Technical Architecture of ICMS), chance of
wrong feedback and human errors cab be mitigated to a bare minimum. It will also support Yard
and industry-specific designing process to help creativity and innovation. It will reduce
development cycle time, improve quality of design (3D & 2D), simulation, manage project
knowledge and allows collaboration or virtual data management. Further, it will offer numerous

133
 integration features which make seamless hybrid installation possible improving the current
analysis and furtherance of design quality.
(d) Virtual Yard. Imagine a scenario wherein majority of construction events including outfitting,
degutting and critical activities are visualized prior to commencement of actual activity through
3D simulations. Also, timeline bottle necks, planning inaccuracies or miscalculation are
identified and resolved beforehand prior going ahead with actual construction itself. This is the
concept of virtual yard. ICMS standardize the interoperability of information in many aspects of
product design, manufacture, delivery and support to such an extent that virtual yard can be
actually achieved. Ship design projects go through a number of different phases from
conceptual design, detailed design, planning and generation of construction deliverables.
Virtual yard is a system-based solution that provides process planning and launching in a 3D
environment, addressing construction requirements for all ICMS shipyards. The same is
achieved by utilizing upstream process planning using design data stored in the engineering
database and construction data stored in the construction database. It will also allow yards to
implement their digital enterprise, thus creating and simulating the entire construction life cycle
from initial concept to commissioning in service.

Technical Architecture of ICMS

7. The architecture of the ICMS employing various CAD-PLM system integration and
interoperability is based on the following components:-
(a) Vessel product structure in the PLMs should reflect the CAD Product Structure at any time
during the vessel project development.
(b) The current PLM classification structure for all sub-systems should support themanagement of
standard part between the CAD and PLM system.
(c) A mechanism to transfer data from the CAD to the PLM (Broadcasting Mechanism).
(d) A mechanism to transfer feedbacks from the PLM to the CAD (Harmonization Mechanism).
(e) A neutral framework for the integration of the various CAD systems with different PLM systems.
(f) Vessel Construction Tree (VCT) created within the PLM where the CAD model items will be
broadcasted.
(g) A set of relational tables in CAD database that will support the Broadcasting and Harmonization
processes between various CAD, PLM and vice-versa will be referred as CAD-PLM
Harmonization table. For detail explanation, refer Figure 3.

134
 CLASIFICATION
SUB-CONTRACTOR SOCIETY (GENERAL
TECHNICAL
PLMs
GUIDELINES)

3 11
2
EQPT/PIPING/MODELS DESIGNER CAD & PLM/PDM* SYSTEM 3D MODELs
DATA THROUGH MAILs
(2D/3D) 2D DRAWINGs

1 4 5 9
A
OWNER YARD PLM
OEM
PREOJECT RELATED
REQUIREMENTS
INTERFACE PLANNING
10 8
6
PRODUCTION MATERIAL
OEM PLMs
7
QA/QC

OEM CAD 1. AUTOMATED FEEDBACK BETWEEN ALL SUB-SYSTEM

THROUGH BACKEND COMMUNICATION BETWEEN
VARIOUS CAD-PLM SYSTEMS

* DIRECT COMMUNICATION 2. PRO-ACTIVE SIMULATED PREDICTION OF ALL MATERIAL/

BETWEEN VARIOUS CAD-PLM PRODUCTION QUALITY ISSUE.
SYSTEMS
3. PROCESS 1 TO 11 EXPLAINED IN FIG 4, 4A, AND 5.

Fig. 3 - Proposed ICMS System

135
SL.No. PROCESS NO FROM CAD-PLM TO CAD-PLM TOPIC
IN FIG 4 SYSTEM SYSTEM
1 1 Designer OEM acceptability / OMA (Opera bility maintainability
accessibility) issues of equipment w.r.t. layout/
environment
2 2 Sub-Contractor Acceptability issues of any sub-assembly w.r.t.
other structures/ sub system of the vessel.
3 3 Classifica on Issue of obsolete/ out dated technical fuidelines
Society view. alterna on/ modifica on in technology
4 4 Owner Issues related to usability /general guidelines
5 9 Yard Comments/observa on on updated BOM (bill of
material) or other related details.
6 5 yard designer 'CAD INTENT’
(a)Acceptability/ OMA / technical issues of design
experienced while undertaking actual/virtual
ou i ng
(b) Design change requirements
(c) Effect of design change on vessel environment
(d) Acceptability of design change in parallel by
designer, yard and owner
7 11 classifica on (e)General technical requirement /rules for auto
society correct dra ing designing of 2D/3D models
8 7 QA/QC Planning Inspec on comple on status vis-a-vis planned
melines
9 8 Material material bo le neck issues
10 10 Planning Material Suitability issue of supplied material. exact
meline based requirement of material.
11 12 Produc on Planning 'VIRTUAL YARD’
Observa on on automated digital mock up of
ou i ng/ cri cal ac vi es. predic on of future
Owner/ issues/problems envisaged with possibility of
Designer valida on of probable solu on in design

Fig 4. Simulated Automated Feedbacks Between Various Cad-Plm Systems In ICMS System
Internal Communication in YARD PLM

136
 CAD PLM YARD PLM
FOUNDATION 1. Updated Vessel Construc on
1. UNIFIED DATABASE Tree (VCT)
(a) Real World Model 2. Updated Bill of Material
(b) Database Model BROADCASTING PROCESS
3. Query Designer/Produc on
(c) Synchronized Model in PLM/PDM
2. TALK SENSE 4. Build strategy
(a) Broadcas ng Mechanism
(b) Harmonizing Mechanism 5. Digital mock of cri cal
ou i ng and other
OUTCOME construc on ac vi es
HARMONIZING PROCES
1 .CAD INTANT 6. Reduc on in unwanted
(a) Verified 2D/3D design produc on surprises
2. VIRTUAL YARD 7. Improve quality of both
(a) Dra Mock-up of Design and Produc on
Ou i ng 8. Verified Database
(b) Construc on Deliverables

Fig. 5 - Layout Of ICMS System

The Integration Scope

8. The integration covers all stages of the vessel life-cycle, from the conceptual and basic design to
the maintenance of the ship. It implies that in basic design stage, the information must be
transferred to PLM automatically with related BOMs (equipment lists, piping fitting, electrical
fittings, cables, etc.). As the project evolves and 3D product model of the vessel is built in the CAD
database, 3D information of the routed systems must also be transferred to PLM. Likewise, the
construction trees in PLM should also evolve automatically, considering project diagrams and 3D
models.
(a) Standard Part Integration.Integration of the standard parts (components) between CAD and
PLM classification structure will be used by both Broadcasting and Harmonization mechanisms
(explained later). The defining of standard parts in PLM will be automatically transferred to CAD
by the Harmonization Mechanism and will require the assignment of some fixed attributes for
identification. These attributes will depend on the type of the standard parts.
(b) Vessel Construction Tree (VCT). VCT (Vessel Construction Tree) is automatically built and
modified during broadcasting processes & will provide PLM users with an up to date view of CAD
product model during project development. VCT has a structure very similar to that of CAD
Product Model, so the position of modeled item in PLM tree will depend on item type. VCT will
be synchronized with CAD 3D model & will be able to control CAD product model trough model
locks as well be able to add or modify all necessary information required by the management of
the vessel along the whole life cycle. It will automatically define standard part in PLM which
are transferred to CAD by Harmonization Mechanism.

137
 Ou i ng

COMPARTMENT A

Equipment-1

MATERIAL-1.1A

MATERIAL-1.1A VESSEL 1

EQUIPEMENT-2
COMPARTMENT B

COMPARTMENT-B
Equipment-1

MATERIAL-II
Equipment-2
A ributes
MATERIAL-1.2B (I)
PROPERTY 1.2B (II.a)
PROPERTY 1.2B (II.b)
MATERIAL-1.2B (II) PROPERTY 1.2B (II.c)

Fig. 6 Vessel Construction Tree

(c) The Broadcasting Mechanism.Broadcasting is the process of sending the following information
from the CAD to PLM systems.
(i) Model item created or modified in the CAD.
(ii) Standard part created or modifies in the CAD.
(iii)Intelligent diagram.
(iv)Build strategy trees created or modified in the CAD.
(v) Drawings or other files handled in the CAD.
(vi)Items deleted in CAD.
(d) Repetitive production assemblies defined in the CAD (e.g. cables) are also transferred to the VC
Tree in the PLMs which are created during broadcasting process. All necessary relationships
with the model items are recognized in VCT and in turn contribute to a more mature status of the
model itself.

138
(e) Broadcasting Modes. A specific Broadcasting process has been devised to facilitate and
customized for all broadcasting tasks. The broadcasting process will provide tools to facilitate
selection of massive information to be broadcasted. Another relevant feature of this process will
be the capacity of being launched in a scheduled way. The Broadcasting process will connect
with the PLM through the CAD-PLM by means of specific PLM web services. The aim of this
Broadcasting process is to facilitate and automate the Broadcasting tasks, reducing the impact
of these tasks in the normal operation of all the CAD and the PLM systems being employed by
sub-units.
(f) Information Broadcasted The Broadcasting process will transfer attributes of the Broadcasted
items as well as the geometry of the items, if available. A restricted number of attributes will be
transferred from the CAD to the PLM (those shared by the CAD and the PLM and those CAD
attributes selected for Broadcasting but not editable in the PLM). The Broadcasting process will
automatically export to the PLM the geometry of the items. Usually the geometry will be
transferred at the level of elementary items (e.g. one part), but in some cases, it will also be
possible to Broadcasted the geometry at a higher level (e.g. one spool). The Broadcasting
process will automatically export geometry of item in PLM. A CAD entity can only be
broadcasted when it meets below specific conditions.
The entity is marked as broadcastable.
(i) The entity has not been deleted in PLM.
(ii) The entity .is not locked in PLM.
(iii)The CAD-entity date is later than the entity Broadcasting date.

PLM
MODEL TABLES

CAD-PLM

1
2 7

3 4
PRODUCT
BROADCASTI VESSEL
DATABASE
NG PROCESS CONSTRUCTION TREE
MANAGEMENT
6

139
SL Note Process
(i) Checking rela on mapping between CAD & PLM for a ribute Process 1
(ii) Broadcas ng process extract form the model table all info to Process 2
be broadcasted (geometry & a ributes)
(iii) Broadcas ng sends all relevant data to PLM/PDM Process 3
(iv) PLM/PDM sends to VCT the data to be broadcas ng by means Process 4
of Web Services
(v) PLM/PDM receives from the VCT the result of the broadcas ng Process 5
(vi) PLM/PDM sends to broadcast the results of broadcas ng Process 6
(vii) Broadcast updates the CAD-PLM Table with results of broadcas ng Process 7

Fig. 7 - Broadcasting Mechanism

(g) The Harmonization Mechanism. Harmonization is the process of automatically sending

Information from PLM items created, modified or deleted in the PLM to CAD, through the
Harmonization Table. The Harmonization process will connect with the PLM through the CAD-
PLM Harmonization Table by means of some specific PLM web services.
The Harmonization process will be running permanently and will perform two types of
harmonization:-
(i) Urgent harmonization.
(ii) Scheduled harmonization.
(h) Entities requiring harmonization of any type will be managed in the PLM through a Modification
Register. The harmonization will also inform to the PLM of the entities successfully synchronized
to allow removal of the entities from the Modification Register. Model items will be locked by
the PLM. This locking will avoids the modification of the item in the CAD. The same is explained
in Fig 8 below.

PLM

MODEL TABLES TABLE

1 2 VESSEL CONSTRUCTION
PRODUCT TREE
HARMONIZATION
DATABASE
PROCESS
MANAGEMENT MODIOFICATION REGISTER
4 3

6 6

140
SL Note Process
(i) Harmoniza on starts scheduled/urgent harmoniza on Process 1
(ii) PLM/PDM launches Web Services (WS) to get data from the Process 2
Modifica on register
(iii) PLM/PDM receives response from WS with data to be created in Process 3
CAD-PLM table
(iv) Harmoniza on receives response from PLM/PDM with data to be
created in CAD-PLM Table Process 4
(v) Harmoniza on update CAD-PLM database Process 5
(vi) Acknowledgment process Process 6

Fig.8 Harmonizing Mechanism

(j) The CAD-PLM Harmonization table. The CAD-PLM Harmonization Table (Harz Tab) is a Set of
relational tables in the CAD/PLM database that contain all the necessary information to manage
whole CAD- PLM Integration process. Harmonizing Table contains information related to
entities participating in CAD - PLM integration process, such as:
(i) Identification of entity in CAD and in PLM.
(ii) Unique identification of each entity (provided by the PLM).
(iii)Broadcasting process related information.
(iv)Harmonization process related information.
(v) Entity maturity information.
(vi)Entity locking status.
(vii)Entity shared attributes.
(k) Definition of Model item in PLM. The automatic management of VCT by B r o a d c a s t i n g
Mechanism will allow the definition of new model items in PLM. For VCT to be transferred
automatically from the PLM to the CAD the process as follows:-
(i) Model items are created in the PLM.
(ii) These models items must have the necessary attributes to be uniquely identified.
(iii)The harmonization mechanism will use these special attributes to identify the items to be
transferred to the CAD and to transfer the model items to the set of relation table in the CAD
database supporting the integration.
(iv)The CAD reconciliation tools will allow the use of these items on the CAD side, completing the
item information.
(v) The Broadcasting Mechanism when required will broadcast these model item in the VCT.

141
(l) Links CAD Drawings-PLM BOMs When broadcasting the drawings for CAD side The system will
create and maintain the relationship between CAD drawing and the items themselves (BOM
lists). These links must maintained for the most relevant types of drawing in all design stages
(e.g. drawings, layout drawings, manufacturing drawing, etc). The Broadcasting of drawings has
been designed in such a way that the process maintains automatically this connection.
(m) The CAD and PLM neutral framework
Its objectives are as follows.
(i) To facilitate and to simplify the integration of CAD/ CAM with different PLM system.
(ii) To make the CAD-PLM integration as independent as possible from the specific
characteristics of each PLM system.
(iii)The CAD-PLM is composed of several processes.
(iv)CAD-PLM client: A set of utilities integrated in the CAD modules to interact with the PLM
server, common to all PLM integrated systems.
(v) CAD-PLM server: A java process to manage CAD business objects and their mapping to the
PLM objects.
(vi)CAD-PLM Plug-in: A set of PLM dependent libraries and tools which map the CAD-PLM
objects and perform the communication with the PLM server consists of two parts.
(p) A set of java classes and methods embedded in to the CAD-PLM server will provide a specific
PLM context and data model to the neutral CAD-PLM object and data type. The PLM adapter will
be a set of web services and PLM templates that are embedded and run into the PLM server. It
will provides the appropriate CAD-PLM data environment for the PLM. The bidirectional
communication CAD-PLM will be done through the use of specific PLM Web services. Many of
these Web services are standard PLM Web services existing in most of the current advanced
PLM systems. Generally speaking the rest of required Web services could be developed by using
or specializing existing Web services.

Conclusion
(9) This paper presents first of its kind, Integrated Construction Management System (ICMS) an
advance bi-directional integration of various shipbuilding specific CAD systems with superior
PLM systems in a Naval shipbuilding environment. The proposed system presents several
important advantages.
(a) Comprehensive single point proactive solution to most of design, material, manufacturing,
planning, trial and quality concerns.
(b) Platform and facility for digital mock up of critical outfitting and other construction activities
pin pointing issues envisaged thereby reducing unwanted production surprises.

142
 (c) Improves the quality of both design and production by providing a single point of truth for
the whole organization.
(d) ICMS is a scalable solution, capable of handling hundreds of designers in the CAD designer
side and thousands of various PLM users in the whole shipbuilding organization. It is mutually
beneficial for both CAD PLM as it allows PLM to take benefit of all the vessel information
handled by the ·CAD from the early stages of the design and ·facilitates real time auto
updates/feedback from PLM to CAD.

References
(a) R Penas, A Gomez, L Pastor and L Sanchez, ' a neutral framework for the integration of
CAD in product model life cycle systems', ICCAS 2009,shanghai, 1-3 September 2009.
(b) R Penas, C Gonzalez, 'integration of DB oriented CAD systems with product lifecycle
management', COMPIT 2011, Berlin, 2-4 May 2011.

143
 AUTHOR'S CERTIFICATE
I hereby certify that I have not used any information and/ or material classified RESTRICTED and
above, or any classified information obtained in any official capacity, while writing the material
that,I am submitting for approval prior to its intended publication and/ or dissemination to/
through the Media.

Signature: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rank & Name: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Personal Number: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Recommendation

Signature:

_____________________________________
Commanding Officer/ HoD officer-in-Charge
PD/APSO at IHQ, MoD

144
 Author's Biodata
Lt Cdr Aheesh Gaur (52507-H) is an Alumnus of 9th NOC at Indian Naval Academy and 151th Basic
Engineering course at INS Valsura. The Officer has served onboard INS Viraat as Assistant Electrical
Officer (PGD & Radio). He has also served as Naval Electrical Overseer at Overseeing Team(North
Yard) at Visakhapatnam. The officer is currently serving as Deputy Director at Directorate of Naval
Design (Submarine Design Group).

145
 article

12 POWER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT AT

LOAD/CONSUMER IN IN SHIPS &
SUBMARINES
By Lt Cdr Aheesh Gaur DDND(SDG)

Abstract Electronics and other large range of systems in Indian Naval Ships & Submarines, specially,
those based on power electronics, can cause high disturbances in the supplied electricity. In this
paper, the power quality characteristics are addressed with the possible measures to increase it
onboard afloat platforms. Going from single to three phase networks and discussing passive and
active filtering solutions, the paper presents possible solutions which can be connected before
delicate onboard equipments to preserve their power supply modules from possible damages. This
will not only ensure better operational availability but also will facilitate reduce onboard
maintenance cost.

Introduction
1. The explosive growth in onboard power electronics has generated a major concern in the ship
building industry. Due to their circuit interface, which usually is a diode bridge rectifier followed
by a large DC capacitor, these power electronic equipment draw current near the peak of the
mains voltage. Examples of such nonlinear loads include the following:
(a) LED lamps and phase-angle controlled lamp dimmers.
(b) The DC power supplies of any electronic product, whether linear or switch-mode.
(c) Three-phase power converters.
(d) Arc welding, electric furnaces, electrolytic processes or other onboard applications like
variable speed controllers.
2. The harmonics generated by the most common nonlinear loads have many hazardous effects.
The lower order harmonics tend to dominate in amplitude. If the waveform has half-wave
symmetry there are no even harmonics and the harmonic emissions from a large number of
nonlinear loads of the same type will be added. Small electronic devices are usually single phase
loads, with only tens or hundreds of watts of mains power, but their proliferations are causing
important effects in the mains voltage. Also, medium/high power nonlinear loads cause similar
problems. The major problems caused by the mains harmonic currents are those associated
with the harmonic currents themselves, and those caused by the voltage waveform distortion
resulting from the harmonic currents flowing in a finite supply source impedance. This
waveform voltage distortion can cause serious damage. Power electronics based applications
draw non-sinusoidal currents, despite the applied voltage being sinusoidal. Effects in direct
non-line induction motors, ranging from a minor increase in internal temperature through
excessive noise and vibration to actual damage; electronic power supplies may fail to operate
adequately; increased earth leakage current through EMI filter capacitors due to their lower
reactance at the harmonic frequencies.

146
3. Power quality and harmonic emissions standards. With the increased use of electrical and
electronic equipment, telecommunication and broadcasting transmissions, the
electromagnetic spectrum has become saturated. The equipment within IN(Indian Navy)
spectrum or onboard installations has become increasingly sensitive to some type of
electromagnetic interference both from internal or external sources, especially because of the
use of digital technology. Therefore, there is a need for control of electromagnetic
environment, namely by limiting of the harmonic emissions caused by any type of electrical or
electronic equipment. In the European Union, this problem has been addressed by the
89/336/EEC Directive, (called the EMC Directive) which came into force in 1992. In the United
States the main guideline come from the IEEE Std 519. There are also similar standards followed
in Indian Navy, but their explanation is beyond the purview of this paper. In this paper, for
analysis, an electrical installation with particular characteristics is considered: a very large
number of PCs, 3-Phase motors with soft starters, and other power electronic equipment; LED
lamps, and control systems instrumentations. The presence of low frequency harmonic
currents demanded by the referred loads, the large number of inductive loads and the layout of
the installation itself are the main causes of the poor power quality observed.

Low frequency harmonic currents and voltage distortion.

4. The problems caused by harmonic pollution can be divided into two categories, namely, those
caused by the harmonic currents themselves, and those caused by voltage waveform distortion
resulting from the harmonic currents flowing in the electrical installation. The main problem
with the harmonic currents is that they can cause overheating in the local supply distribution
transformer and in the installation itself. Also, harmonic currents in the neutral conductors of
three-phase supplies present reliability and safety risks, where neutral conductors have not
been suitably dimensioned.
5. The standards dealing with low frequency harmonic currents have evolved with the objective of
promoting power quality by limiting the harmonic currents imposed on the mains supply.
Before we begin exploring the possible solution, there is another term that needs to be
understood, "special wave shape", it is defined by an envelope, which is effectively a means of
distinguishing electronic power supply circuits, which normally draw their current for less than
a third of the supply half-cycle. Equipment is deemed to be non harmonically polluting, if the
input current wave shape of each half period is within the envelope shown for at least 95% of
the duration of each half period.

Active filtering
6. Different solutions to minimize the effects of nonlinear loads in electric distribution systems
(non-sinusoidal voltages, harmonic currents, resonance) have been proposed and
implemented. Even though the harmonic contribution of any overhead projector, Personal
Computer, printer, or 200 W power supply, is negligible on its own, with hundreds of similar
units connected to the same onboard supply, their contributions are additive and present a
particular problem, depending on the capacity, impedance, and layout of the network.

147
7. Main signalling voltage and resonance. The non-sinusoidal current drawn from the supply
causes distortion of the supply voltage, it is due to the fact that the inductance of the supply
increases the source impedance as the harmonic order increases. This waveform distortion can
cause serious effects in various connected loads. In modern single phase low power equipment,
the main interface is made with the capacitive components in the circuit. System resonance
effects at the harmonic frequencies can also create a cumulative effect wherein areas of the
power distribution network where the voltage is more heavily distorted than elsewhere, and/or
has significant over- or under-voltage. Also, some areas of the network can suffer from much
higher levels of current than elsewhere, at a few harmonic frequencies.
8 The general solution for power quality onboard falls into addressing one of two categories:
controlling ripples (for harmonic frequencies in range from 100 Hz to 3 kHz) and addressing
communication systems (ranging in frequencies from 3 kHz to 148.5 kHz). Both these categories
have their permissible voltage levels. In a general installation, the presence of (limited)
signalling voltages can produce resonance, the highest resonance occurring under low load
conditions. The main control categories are of two types:-
(a) The line frequency switching compensators and
(b) The high frequency switching compensators.
9. In the first control mode the line current conduction time is extended to almost the entire line
period. High frequency switching solutions include the large family of power factor correction
circuits. All of these AC/DC converter stages provide sinusoidal current absorption, using
various kinds of series and shunt compensators, like the active filters. For the case of
medium/high power three phase networks, it is important to have balanced conditions and
sinusoidal voltages. This can be achieved using flexible AC power transmission systems,
incorporating power electronics circuits and other static compensators providing increased
controllability.
10. Different types of compensators have been proposed to increase the electric system quality. The
active filter control strategy is very similar to the one applied to the pre-regulator circuit in the
high frequency switching mode with continuous current. The strategy allows power factor
correction to the unity, harmonic elimination and load unbalance compensation.

Active filter operation

11. Various different control algorithms can be applied to the active filter correction technique. But
almost all of them require a low processing time and allows the calculation of the current
reference for one of two strategies.
(a) Power factor correction using harmonic elimination and load unbalance compensation.
(b) Voltage regulation using harmonic elimination and load unbalance compensation.
12. The control algorithm needs the measurement of several variables like the three phase AC
source voltage and the DC link voltage. The active power balance in the DC link determines the
reference current of the AC source and the use of a PI controller allows a smooth control of the
filter current and improves the system dynamic response. This is followed by the

148
 modulation stage in which the total reference currents are subtracted from the source current,
obtaining a current error adapted according to the amplitude of the triangular carrier. A
triangular waveform also introduced to stabilize the converter switching frequency by forcing it
to be constant and equal to the frequency of the triangular reference signal. Since the current
error signal is always kept within the negative and positive peaks of the triangular waveform,
the system has an inherent over current protection. The result of using such active power
protection, is mostly a mains current gets a sine waveform, being only slightly distorted in the
instants of the diode switching. This is due to the high change in current occurring in various
high current density points in the circuit, which is impossible to compensate unless with a very
high DC voltage or a very low AC inductance. To solve the same, there should be a compromise
between the active filter dimensioning and the characteristics of the load current to be
compensated.

Solutions
13. Harmonics generated by nonlinear loads are one of the major causes of a poor power quality. So,
harmonic elimination, in the source or with active filtering, is needed to achieve a better power
quality onboard Indian Naval Ships & Submarines. The paper addresses the problem of active
filtering in low power single phase networks and medium/high power three phase networks.
14. In modern single phase low power equipments they should have a pre-regulator stage,
achieving an almost sinusoidal input current. In medium/high power single or three phase
networks when it is not possible to eliminate the harmonic currents in the input stage in some
connection point, the active power filter is the solution to be implemented. The active filter
operation in the harmonic elimination mode allows an increasing in the power quality due to
the achieved sinusoidal current flowing in the network. In order to address power quality issues
we have to address.
15. Onboard ships, harmonics are mostly caused due to control equipment & PE devices, while
fluctuations are due to faulty operations of the source. These are often associated with voltage
flickers (faulty operation of the grid and connected equipment and frequency deviations due to
Source and prime mover fault. In order to have effective and automated power quality
regulation, it has to catch instantaneous interferences (in both I and V) quickly including,
amplitude variation, waveform distortions and rate of variation. This paper proposes the
possible solutions such as
(a) Active Power Filter Correction Circuit which uses combination of active and passive filters. A
low cost solution but having slower response time.
(b) SVC (Static VAR Compensation), a shunt connected device capable of generating or
absorbing reactive power having limited phase balancing capabilities and control
frequency.
(c) STATCOM (Static Synchronous Compensation), a VSC (Voltage Source Convertor) based
device used for Voltage regulation in transmission and distribution system. It can rapidly
supply dynamic VARs required system disturbances and faults for voltage supports. It
comprises of an energy storage element (Ultra/super capacitor), integrated with the device
to mitigate over-currents and trips during and after system disturbances.

149
16. Conclusion. Advances in technology already have a profound bearing on the eqpt onboard
Indian naval platforms, be it new construction ships or retro-fits. In the earlier era, if one could
provide uninterrupted power supply maintaining r.m.s voltage and frequency, it was good
enough. However, Due to shift from analog systems to state of the art digital systems in the field
of power generation & distribution, machinery controls, communications, Nav-aids and
Weapons & sensors, increased attention to Power Quality has been inevitable i.e providing
voltage and current flow in the purest sinusoidal form without swells, sags, notches, harmonics
etc. In the present scenario, Power Quality is more significant due to vulnerability of
sophisticated electronic systems being used onboard our platforms and the associated cost of
their respective Power supply modules. Applying an external power quality protection device
as explained in the paper before the load can prove to be breakthrough solution for better
operational availability with reduced maintenance cost.

References
[1] EURELECTRIC, “Power Quality in European Electricity Supply Networks”, Brussels, (2002).
[2] M. H. J. Bollen, “Understanding Power Quality Problems”, IEEE Press, Piscataway, (2000).
[3] J. Arrillaga, D. A. Bradley and P. S. Bodger, “Power Systems Harmonics”, John Wiley and Sons,
Chichester, (1985).
[4] C. Sankaran, “Power Quality”, CRC Press, Boca Raton, (2002).
[5] IEEE Std 519-1992, “IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in
Electric Power Systems”, IEEE Press, Piscataway, (1993).
[6] J. A. Oliver, R. Lawrence and B. B. Banerjee, “Power Quality”, IEEE Industry Applications
Magazine, Sept/Oct. 2002, pp. 21-30.
[7] R. P. Rico, “Calidad de Potencia. La Calidad del Servicio Eléctrico en Redes Públicas de Baja y
Media Tensión”, Mundo Electrónico, Nº 299, Junio 1999, pp. 42-51.
[8] W. Mühlegger, “Identifying Distorting Sources on the Grid”, PCIM 2002, Nuremberg, pp. 45-
49.
[9] E. Handschin, W. Horenkamp, Th. Wiesner and E. Stachorra, “The Spectral Grid Impedance
of Distribution Networks as a Key Term Analysis”, PCIM 2001, Nuremberg, pp. 171-176.
[10]M. Herfurth, “Active Harmonic Filtering for Line Rectifiers of Higher Output Power”, Siemens
Components, Vol. XXI, nº1, pp. 9-13.
[11]A. K. Lefedjiev and J. Leisten, “Voltage Tracking PFC' – A Simple, Low Cost Way to Improve The
Efficiency of PC Power Supplies with Active PFC”, PCIM 2001, Nuremberg, pp. 95-100.
[12]D. Marsh, “Active Power Factor Correction”, EDN Magazine, Jan. 2000, pp. 31-41.
[13]N. G. Hingorani and L. Gyugyi, “Understanding Facts: Concepts and Technology of Flexible AC
Transmission Systems”, IEEE Press, Piscataway, (2000).

150
 Author's Biodata
Lt Cdr Aheesh Gaur (52507-H) is an Alumnus of 9th NOC at Indian Naval Academy and 151th Basic
Engineering course at INS Valsura. The Officer has served onboard INS Viraat as Assistant Electrical
Officer (PGD & Radio). He has also served as Naval Electrical Overseer at Overseeing Team(North
Yard) at Visakhapatnam. The officer is currently serving as Deputy Director at Directorate of Naval
Design (Submarine Design Group).

151
 article

13 CFD ANALYSIS OF A MISSILE LAUNCH FROM

A STATIC UNDERWATER PLATFORM

Sajo Joy IS Makkar

Student Adjunct Faculty
Dept of Applied Mechanics, Dept of Applied Mechanics,
Indian Institute of Technology Indian Institute of Technology
New Delhi-110016, India New Delhi-110016, India
Email: amx155517@iitd.ac.in Email: ismakkar@am.iitd.ac.in

SS Sinha B Praveen
Assistant Professor Joint Director
Dept of Applied Mechanics, Directorate of Naval Design
Indian Institute of Technology (Submarine Design Group)
New Delhi-110016, India New Delhi-110 066
Email: sawan@am.iitd.ac.in Email:praveen2000in@yahoo.com

Abstract Stability of a launch platform is an important aspect for operation of a missile and more so
in case of an underwater platform. Availability of a platform dynamics estimation tool for missile
launch evolution analysis during initial design stages is critical for designers. In this study a transient
numerical analysis has been carried out to study the motion of an underwater platform post launch
of a missile. A very simplistic setup was modelled to understand the physics of the problem. The
motive of the work was to develop an understanding of the problem and to prepare a foundation
for analysis of the actual system – static/mobile platform.

Introduction
Launching of a missile is a complex operation even from a ground based station, the complexities
increase as we move from land to sea and even more when it is from an underwater platform.
Projectile launch from a submarine is an advanced military technology. Such launching methods
possess the advantages of flexibility and elusion. The projectile is accelerated by the high-pressure
propellant gas and departs from the launch tube. The effect of the various parameters during
vertical launch is of great interest for naval architects to understand the dynamics that happen
during the launch of a vertical launch missile.

Fig. 1. Types Missile Launch Platform

152
 Fig. 2. A Missile Launch

Fig. 3. Stages of a Missile Launch

153
The launch of a missile involves various stages starting from opening of the missile silo cover then
breaking of a water tight seal by the pressure of the gases released for ejecting the missile, ejection
of the missile which is followed by filling of the missile silo by gravity thereafter some amount of
water needs to filled in the compensating tanks to stabilize the platform. The launch of the missile
from the submarine causes the submarine to lose weight and the submarine moves up due to the
imbalance in the weight and buoyancy. This is problematic as the corridor for launch of the missile is
very less i.e. the missiles have a booster based on hydrostatic pressure of the water. The submarine
moves up which causes a situation in which the submarine has to be stabilized before next missile
can be launched. Water taken into the silo and compensating tanks also causes destabilising effect
on the platform. Hence, studying the various parameters that are affecting the launch of missile
from a submarine is of paramount importance the dynamics of a submarine increases the
complexity of the problem the study hereafter is based on a static underwater platform.

B. Motivation
Today we are in a positon to design and construct state of art missile systems as well as nuclear
submarines. The ability to develop our own missile systems and testing them from underwater
platforms will empower us to become self-sufficient in this field to a great extent. The study of
effect of a missile launch will help in design and construction of such platforms to test various
systems developed in the country. A numerical simulation of the missile launch and its effect on the
static platform will enable in designing a platform with minimum displacements due to the forces
exerted on it during the launch. The analysis and validation of result with the observations at the
existing facility or by conducting an experimental setup will help in developing a better
understanding of the motions and develop a comprehensive method for actual prediction of the
dynamics of the system.

C. Literature Survey
a. Vertical Launching Systems
A Vertical Launching System (VLS) is an advanced system for holding and firing missiles on mobile
naval platforms, such as surface ships and submarines. Generally vertical launch system consists of
a number of cells, ranging from 8 to 120 and even more which can hold one or more missiles ready
for firing. Typically, each cell can hold a number of different types of missiles, allowing the ship,
flexibility to load the best set for any given mission.
b. Hot Launch and Cold Launch
A vertical launch system can be either hot launch, where the missile ignites in the cell using its own
propulsion module, or cold launch, where the missile is expelled out of the cell by gas produced by a
gas generator which is not part of the missile itself and then the missile ignites once it is out. "Cold"
means relatively cold compared with rocket engine exhaust mechanism because the missile is not
generating the exhaust to launch itself. A hot launch system does not require an ejection

154
mechanism, but does require some way of disposing of the missile's exhaust and heat as it leaves
the cell. If the missile ignites in a cell without an ejection mechanism, the cell must withstand the
tremendous heat generated without igniting the missiles in the adjacent cells and can cause
catastrophic damage to the vessel.
An advantage of a hot-launch system is that the missile propels itself out of the launching cell using
its own engine, which eliminates the need for a separate system to eject the missile from the
launching tube. This potentially makes a hot-launch system relatively light, small, and economical
to develop and produce, particularly when designed around smaller missiles. A potential
disadvantage is that a malfunctioning missile could destroy the launch tube. The advantage of the
cold-launch system is in its safety, should a missile engine malfunction during launch, the cold-
launch system can eject the missile thereby reducing or eliminating the threat. Thus providing a
safety check. As missile size grows, the benefits of ejection launching increase. Above a certain size,
a missile booster cannot be safely ignited within the confines of a ship's hull. Most modern ICBMs
and SLBMs are cold-launched.
c. Dynamic Fluid Body Interaction
The analysis of the motion needs use of fluid solid interaction and since both the platform and fluid
are in relative motion a dynamic fluid body interaction had to be modelled. This is done by using the
DFBI body object in STAR-CCM+. This object helps in simulating the motion of platform in water.

C. Problem definition
The study of such an evolution involves multiple branches of science involving various levels of
interdependency. To develop an understanding of the actual physics behind it is necessary to
understand the phenomenon part by part. The study involves rigid body motion, flow around the
missile, study of behaviour of exhaust gases, flow dynamics of the gas fluid mixture inside the silo
and stability of the platform.
There were many challenges due to the very nature of the problem. Since the research in this
particular field is restricted to only some of the superpowers which actually operate such platforms.
And the available literature were related to flow dynamics around the missile. There is a hardly any
study in open source about the dynamics of the platform. The analysis of the problem is a very
costly because the analysis is transient and due to need of the dynamic meshing to capture the
motion of the platform, the simulations needed to be run on high performance computers
available.

II. METHODOLOGY
A. Setting up of Simulation
a. Selection of Missile System

155
For the purpose of carrying out the analysis a missile system was needed. A hypothetical system has
been selected based on open source realistic data. The main particulars of the selected missile are
as follows:
Diameter : 0.5 m
Length : 3.0 m
Weight : 3 tonnes
b. Design of a Suitable Missile Platform
For the analysis a simple design was adopted which was a rectangular barge like platform with the
dimensions as follows:
Length : 4m
Breadth : 4m
Depth : 4m
The platform is to be kept in neutrally buoyant position at a depth of 4m to do so the weight and
buoyancy need to be balanced at the starting of the analysis.
c. Selection of Analysis Tool
For analysis of the problem a CFD tool was required STAR-CCM+ was the software used for
simulation of the missile launch. The software provides all the required models for setting up the
simulation. STAR CCM provides overset mesh for solving problems involving moving bodies. In an
overset mesh, cells are grouped into active, inactive, or acceptor cells. Within active cells,
discretized governing equations are solved. Within inactive cells, no equation is solved, however,
these cells can become active if the overset region is moving. Acceptor cells separate active and
inactive cells in the background region and are attached to the overset boundary in the overset
region.

Fig. 4. The Missile Launch Platform

156
Acceptor cells are used to couple solutions on the two overlapping grids. Variable values at donor
cells of one mesh express variable values at acceptor cells in the other mesh, through interpolation.
The donor cells are the active cells from the other mesh that are nearest to the acceptor cell.
d. Setting up the Geometry for the problem
First we need to create the platform which is a cube with sides of 4 m each. Volume is required
which is larger than the platform volume and overlaps the platform this region is called the overset
region. The overset region is the dynamic mesh that handles the movement of the platform. The
overset region for the problem is a cube of sides 4 each.

Fig 5 The Overset Region

Another region is to be made which forms the interface between the overset and the background.
Background is the complete fluid domain. This interfacing region is called the overlap, the overset
region can move in this region only and lastly the background which is the overall fluid domain for
the problem. The overlap region has dimension of 8mx8mx20m and background is a cube of sides
20m each.

Fig 6 The Overlap Region

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The active meshes which participate in the simulation are overset and the background. The overlap
region is used for volumetric control of the meshing to allow for the interface between the two
meshes.

Fig. 4. The Missile Launch Platform

e. Meshing the Domain

The meshing is done in two parts one for the background which is a coarse mesh and another for
overset which is a finer mesh. Special volumetric controls are given for overlap in background and
platform in overset region.

Fig 8 Mesh Generated for the simulation

Meshing details
Background region
Base size : 1.0 m
Minimum surface size : 0.1 m
Volume growth rate : Slow

Overset region
Base size : 0.2m
Minimum surface size : 0.02m
Volume growth rate : Fast

158
 Fig 9 A Section through the mesh

f. Setting up physics models for the setup

The following physics models are selected to capture the phenomenon in the simulation
n Three dimensional
n Implicit unsteady
n Eulerian Multiphase
n Volume of Fluid
n Segregated Flow
n Gravity
n VOF waves
n Turbulent Flow
n Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes
n K-Epsilon turbulence model
g. Setting up a Dynamic Fluid Body Interaction
Dynamic Fluid Body Interaction is used to simulate the motion of a rigid body due to forces on it due
to fluid forces. The platform surface is assigned to the DFBI body. The weight and other forces acting
on the body are initialized.

Table 1 Forces ac ng on the pla orm

Weight of the pla orm at the start 64 Tonnes
(to maintain a neutral equilibrium)
Force ac ng on the pla orm -34973.77N
(Due to the missile launch ac ng for 0.5 seconds).
Weight loss due to missile launch 3 Tonnes
Weight due to water filling into the missile silo W(t) = 0.75t2 - 0.75t + 0.1875
The quadra c func on acts from 0.5 to 2.5 secs.

159
 h. Setting the solvers
The following solvers are used
(i) Implicit Unsteady
(ii) 6 DOF Solver
(iii)6 DOF motion
(iv) Segregated flow
(v) Segregated VOF
(vi) K-Epsilon Turbulence
(vii) K-Epsilon Turbulent Viscosity

Fig 10 Plot of displacement (z)

Fig 11 Plot of Acceleration (z)

160
 Table 2 Observed Displacements and Accelera ons (z)
Time Displacement(m) Accelera on(m/s2)
0.01 -0.00002 -0.4543
0.1 -0.00189 -0.0432
0.2 -0.00723 -0.4388
0.3 -0.01618 -0.3416
0.4 -0.02865 -0.3539
0.5 -0.04466 -0.3516
0.6 -0.06090 0.3213
0.7 -0.07392 0.3183
0.8 -0.08378 0.3101
0.9 -0.09054 0.2990
1 -0.09432 0.2823
1.1 -0.09529 0.2599
1.2 -0.09368 0.2353
1.3 -0.08973 0.2094
1.4 -0.08370 0.1835
1.5 -0.07584 0.1583
1.6 -0.06642 0.1344
1.7 -0.05566 0.1114
1.8 -0.04380 0.0939
1.9 -0.03102 0.0711
2 -0.01755 0.0503
2.1 -0.00357 0.0317
2.2 0.01071 0.0132
2.3 0.02512 -0.0125
2.4 0.03943 -0.0244
2.5 0.05349 -0.0402

IV. CONCLUSIONS
The results from the simulation has given us a head start into the study of analysis of the motion of
an underwater missile launch platform. This results can be verified with an experimental setup
similar to the one simulated. Thereafter the same can be done for a real missile launch platform.
This particular model is a simplified version for the platform the actual one would be a complicated
one and would require high computational power and understanding of the physics behind the
operation from such platform. Also a highly accurate measurements need to be taken while
conducting the experiments.

161
REFERENCES
1. HUANG Jian-Chun, YE Qu-Yuan and ZHU Shi-Quan. Gas-water dynamic calculation for the
underwater ignition of a missile at different depths [J]. Chinese Journal of Applied Mechanics,
1994, 11(3).
2. WANG Cheng, YE Qu-yuan and HE You-sheng. Calculation of an exhausted gas cavity behind an
under-water launched missile [J]. Chinese Journal of Applied Mechanics, 1997, 14(3).
3. SHAN Xue-xiong, YANG Rong-guo and YE Qu-yuan. Fluid forces on a missile with control system
of vectorial thrust [J]. Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University, 2001.
4. WANG Xiao-hong, CHEN Yi-Liang, LI Qian et al. Nozzle flows of the missile launching under
water [J]. Journal of Propulsion Technology. 2001.
5. LI Jie, LU Chuan-jing. The model of combustion gas bubble of submarine-launched missile and
numerical simulation [J]. Journal of Ballistics, 2009.
6. R. F. Hubbell, Near-Field Flow and Drag on Cylindrical Bodies Moving Concentrically Inside Very
Long Tubes, Naval Underwater Systems Centre, Newport, RI.
7. Kotlow D. A., White F. M., An analysis of developing turbulent flow between a moving cylinder
and a concentric tube; AIAA and ASME, Fluid Mechanics, Plasma Dynamics and Lasers
Conference, 4th, Atlanta, GA, May 12-14, 1986. 7 p
8. M. Benaouicha and A. Hamdouni, “Fluid-structure interaction with an application to a body
immersed and anchored in a fluid flow,” International Applied Mechanics, Vol. 47, No. 3, pp.
338–349 (2011).
9. Joseph Sarrate, Antonio Huerta and Jean Donea, “Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian formulation
for fluid-rigid body interaction,” Computer methods in applied mechanics and engineering,
190, pp. 3171–3188 (2001).
10. Michel Lesoinne, Marcus Sarkis, Ulrich Hetmaniuk and Charbel Farhat “A linearized method for
the frequency analysis of three dimensional fluid/structure interaction problems in all flow
regimes,” Computer methods in applied mechanics and engineering, 190, pp. 3121–3146
(2001).
11. Xiong Shi and Jun Chen, “Simulation of inner ballistic of underwater weapon based on flow field
numerical calculation,” Procedia Engineering, 12, pp. 93-98 (2011).
12. Qiang Qi, Qinggui Chen, Yuan Zhou, Haiyang Wang and Hongmei Zhou, “Submarine-Launched
Cruise Missile Ejecting Launch Simulation and Research” --No.7 Department, Naval
Aeronautical and Astronautical University, Yantai Shandong, China Graduate Students' Brigade,
Naval Aeronautical and Astronautical University, Yantai Shandong, China
13. Wang Wen, Ying Chao-long, Lv long and Li Jian-hai, “Numerical Simulation for Gas Flow in CCL “-
- Department of Basic Experiment, Naval Aeronautical and Astronautical University, Yantai,
China
14. Star CCM User Manual

162
CFD Analysis of a Missile Launch from a Static Underwater Platform
1 2 3 4
Lt Sajo Joy , Lt Cdr Ishaq S Makkar , Cdr B Praveen and Prof SS Sinha
1. Trainee Officer, Naval Construction Wing, IIT Delhi, New Delhi-110016
amx155517@iitd.ac.in
2. Deputy Officer in Charge, Naval Construction Wing, IIT Delhi, New Delhi-110016
ismakkar@iitd.ac.in
3. Joint Director, Directorate of Naval Design (SDG), New Delhi-110066
praveen2000in@yahoo.com
4. Assistant Professor, Dept. of Applied Mechanics, IIT Delhi, New Delhi-110016
sawan@am.iitd.ac.in

ABSTRACT
Stability of a launch platform is an important aspect for operation of a missile and more so in case of
an underwater platform. Availability of a platform dynamics estimation tool for missile launch
evolution analysis during initial design stages is critical for designers. In this study a transient
numerical analysis has been carried out to study the motion of an underwater platform post launch
of a missile. A very simplistic setup was modelled to understand the physics of the problem. The
motive of the work was to develop an understanding of the problem and to prepare a foundation
for analysis of the actual system – static/mobile platform.
The results from the simulation has given us a head start into the study of analysis of the motion of
an underwater missile launch platform. This results can be verified with an experimental setup
similar to the one simulated. Thereafter the same can be done for a real missile launch platform.
This particular model is a simplified version for the platform the actual one would be a complicated
one and would require high computational power and understanding of the physics behind the
operation from such platform. Also a highly accurate measurements need to be taken while
conducting the experiments.

163
Author's Biodata

Lt Sajo Joy Lt Cdr Ishaq S Makkar Cdr B Praveen Prof SS Sinha

Presenting Author's Biodata

Lt Sajo Joy is a graduate of Naval Architecture from the Cochin University of Science and
Technology. He is pursuing a PG Diploma in Naval Construction from Indian Institute of Technology,
Delhi. His fields of interest include – Warship Design, Ship Hydrodynamics and CFD Analysis of
Marine Platforms.

Co-Author's Biodata
Lt Cdr Ishaq S Makkar is a graduate of Naval Architecture from the Cochin University of Science and
Technology. He has done a PG Diploma in Naval Construction from Indian Institute of Technology,
Delhi and M Tech in Ocean Engineering and Naval Architecture from Indian Institute of Technology,
Kharagpur. He is presently appointed as Adjunct Faculty at the Naval Construction Wing, Department
of Applied Mechanics at Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi; where he teaches the subjects of
Submarine Design and Warship Resistance & Propulsion. Prior to his present appointment, the
officer has undertaken duties of Naval Architect Officer onboard INS Beas and as Submarine
Overseer with the Submarine Overseeing Team (Mumbai) for the Scorpene (P-75) class of
submarines. He has published papers in in various international/national conferences in the area of
Warship design/CFD. He is a member of the Institution of Naval Architects, India. His fields of interest
include - Submarine Design, Submarine Construction/Overseeing, Ship Hydrodynamics and
Unmanned Marine Vehicles.
Cdr. B Praveen is a graduate of Naval Architecture from the Cochin University of Science and
Technology. He has done a PG Diploma in Naval Construction from Indian Institute of Technology,
Delhi and M Tech in Ocean Engineering from Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur. He is
presently appointed as Joint Director, Directorate of Naval Design (Submarine Design Group). The
officer's previous appointments include Adjunct Faculty (Naval Construction Wing, IIT Delhi), Officer-
in-Charge (Hull Inspections & Trials Unit, Port Blair) and Assistant Manager (Naval Dockyard,
Visakhapatnam). He is a member of the Institution of Naval Architects, India. His fields of interest
include Submarine Design, Propulsion and Ship Dynamics.
Dr Sawan S Sinha is an Aeronautical Engineer. He did his B.Tech. in Aerospace Engineering from Indian
Institute of Technology Kanpur and PhD in Aerospace Engineering from Texas A&M University. He has
worked with Defence Research & Development Organization (DRDO), Hyderabad and EACoE, John F.
Welch Technology Centre (GE India), Bangalore. Post PhD he worked as Research Associate at
Aerospace Engineering Department, Texas A&M University. He has published 35 research papers in
national & international refereed journals/conferences. His research interests include Theory and
Modelling of Compressible Turbulence, Hypersonic Flows, CFD of massively separated flow, Airship
design, Flow-thermodynamics of steam turbines at low-load condition.

164
 article

14 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF RESIDUAL

STRESSES DUE TO WELDING IN SUBMARINE HULL

Proceedings of the Seminar on Current and Future Challenges in Design and

Construction of Underwater Vehicles
November 2016 New Delhi India

Nagaja. P Suhail Ahmad B.P. Patel

PG Student, Professor Professor
Dept. of Applied Mechanics Dept. of Applied Mechanics Dept. of Applied Mechanics
IIT Delhi , New Delhi - 110016 IIT Delhi, New Delhi - 110016 IIT Delhi, New Delhi - 110016
Email: pnagaja1993@yahoo.co.in Email: suhail@am.iitd.ac.in Email: bppatel@am.iitd.ac.in

Abstract In this paper, Welding of ASTM 36 carbon steel plates was studied numerically. The Finite
Element Analysis (FEA) of residual stresses in butt welding of two similar plates is performed with
commercial FEsoftware ANSYS®. This analysis includes a finite element model for the transient
thermal and mechanical welding simulation. It also includes a moving heat source, material,
temperature dependant material properties, metal plasticity and elasticity, transient heat transfer
and mechanical analysis. The welding simulation was considered as a sequential coupled thermo-
mechanical analysis and the element birth and death technique was employed for the simulation of
filler metal deposition. The residual stress distribution, strain and magnitude in the axial direction
were obtained. The results were initially validated with open source literature and further analysed
for multiple boundary conditions.
Keywords: Welding, welding joint, plate, residual stresses, stress analysis, finite element method

1. Introduction
A. Submarine Welding and Residual Stresses
Submarines have a pressure hull and an outer hull .The pressure hull is designed to withstand the
hydrostatic pressures till the required depths. Out of all the loads acting on the submarine,
hydrostatic pressure is the major component. Other loads acting are shock loads underwater
detonation, longitudinal and transverse loads due to waves.
The shell of the pressure hull absorbs forces in longitudinal direction however, the transverse frame
are additionally stiffened to absorb circumferential loads. Such a hull can fail when it is loaded
beyond yield point, buckling or overall collapse.Explicit understanding of the residual stress field of
primary submarine pressure hull induced during fabrication will improve the fidelity of numerical
analysis and experimentation. Hence, supporting operational envelope and design life extension
initiatives .The fatigue lifetime of a submarine hull depends on the loads generated by hull

165
contraction under the effect of hydrostatic pressure and the residual stresses. The use of numerical
simulation allows a straight forward calculation of the stresses induced by the welding process. It is
more intricate to determine the residual stresses resulting from the sheet bending process
combined with the sheet assembly using a multipass welding process.
Efforts have been made to establish and improve ultimate submarine design life limits. The residual
stresses induced due to manufacturing processes, like rolling and welding, are variables required
for analysis of various degradation mechanisms associated with the aggressive loading conditions
experienced by a submersible (buckling, fatigue, stress corrosion cracking). In a submarine
structure, the hull is essentially composed of rolled plates and T frames welded together. The
residual stresses produced by the bending process can be calculated. The resulting through
thickness distribution has a typical “Z” shape with tension at the inner surface of the hull and
compression at the outer surface. The residual stresses induced in T-butt welds are highly tensile in
and around the weld which can have important effects on the mechanisms of crack growth.
Consequently, it is very important to predict residual stress and its effect on structural failure
analysis through fracture mechanics approach.
The most commonly available residual stressmeasurement techniques that can be applied to cast
irons and steels. The techniques can be categorised in terms of penetrationdepth and the degree of
material removal required. Only a few techniques are available to measurecomponents thicker
than 10mm. Neutron diffraction, centre hole drilling, slitting, deep hole drilling are few techniques,
which are destructive and may not give accurate results.
There are many methods adopted during the production and welding to avoid residual stresses. Pre
heating, controlled welding using heating pads etc. Inspite of the measures taken residual stresses
are unavoidable due to thicknesses involved.
Therefore the paper suggests the significance of numerical studies as a tool to determine the
residual stresses that can occur in welding plates of different thicknesses.

II. BACKGROUND
A lot of research has been already done and published on the residual stresses induced during
welding. It was largely done on butt welding of thin plates of different materials and for different
boundary conditions. FE analysis of welding is essentially a thermo – mechanical simulation.
Comparatively there is less research done on FE simulation of submarine hull welding. It is different
from other welding processes as the thickness, temperature and other welding variables involved
are very different. Therefore there is a large scope for research.
A. Development of Welding Simulation Model
The simulation of welding using FE method can be split into two solution steps: thermal and
mechanical analyses. First, the temperature and phase evolution are determined as a function of
time in the thermal analysis. Then, the mechanical analysis employs the previous results to get
displacements at nodes and stresses at integration points. Since the thermal field has a strong
influence on the stress field with little inverse influence, a sequentially coupled analysis predicts
quite accurate results. Moreover, a 3-D FE analysis is the optimum method of ascertaining the
thermal cycle of welding. Therefore the welding process will be simulated using a sequentially
coupled 3-D thermo mechanical FE analysis based on the ANSYS software. For both the thermal and

166
mechanical analyses, temperature dependent thermo-physical and mechanical properties of the
materials are used.
Firstly, the computation of the temperature history during welding and subsequent cooling is
completed and this temperature field is applied to the mechanical model as a body force to perform
the residual stress analysis.
To simulate the moving heat source it is necessary to model the heat source during each time
increment. In this analysis the moving heat source is simplified by assuming the welding arc stayed
at an element with a constant specific volume heat generation, and then moved to the next
element at the end of the load step as the welding is completed. The simulation procedure can be
understood from Figure 1.1.

THERMAL ANALYSIS
Thermal boundary condi ons
* Moving heat source
* Non linear material model

THERMAL POST PROCESSING

* Temperature fields

TEMPERATURE
HISTORIES AND
THERMAL RESULTS 3D finite element model
* Geometry data
* Meshing parameters

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Structural boundary condi ons
Nin linear thermo elasto plas c
material model

STRUCTURAL POST
PROCESSING
Transient and residual
deforma on

Fig.1.1: Flow chart for simula on [3]

167
 B. Analytical Overview of the Problem
a. Thermal modelling
The principal parameter of the heat source for the temperature field is the heat input into the
welding spot in the arc welding, the heat input is the product of current I [A] and voltage U [V] in the
case of direct current. Consequently the heat flow is expressed as [1]
q=UIηh
Heat losses e.g. radiation in welding is taken into account by the heat efficiency ηh which depends
on the welding process. In computing heat flow in actual weldments, it is often necessary to take
into consideration the effect of the size and shape of the heat source. This can be done by treating
the heat source as being distributed over an area [J/mm2] or a volume [J/mm3]. Fourier's law of
heat conduction describes the heat flow propagation. It states that the heat flow density q [J/mm2]
is proportional to the negative temperature gradient ∂T/∂t [°C /mm] by the equation

Where λ [J/(mm°C)] denotes the thermal conductivity and T [°C] the temperature.
In terms of FE modelling of the welding heat source, the heat generation Q can be expressed as [1]
Q= Q surface+ Q volume + Q filter
where Qsurface is the surface heat flux, Qvolume is the volume heat flux and Qfiller is the heat
generated by the addition of the weld filler material at a prescribed initial temperature. One
objective with heat transfer analysis in welding is to determine the temperature fields in an object
resulting from conditions imposed on its boundaries, the quantity sought being the Temperature
distribution. Figure shows a schematic model of the temperature distribution when a surface weld
bead is being deposited at a speed v. The coloured bands represent isothermal areas.

Fig.1.2: Temperature distribution in during welding

The fundamental equation of heat conduction for a homogeneous and isotropic continuum with
temperature-independent material characteristic values in a solid is [1]

168
The parameter c [J/g°C] is the mass-specific heat capacity and the parameter ρ [g/mm3] is the
density. The parameter Qv [J/mm3] is the rate of temperature change due to heat generated per
volume, and λ/cρ is the material-and temperature-dependent coefficient of thermal diffusivity κ
[mm2/s]. The temperature field in equation (3) could either be stationary (i.e. steady-state), the
temperature field is then time-constant at all points, i.e. ∂T/∂t = 0, or non-stationary (i.e. transient),
then the temperature field is determined on the material side by the thermal diffusivity. The
characteristic of heat flow during arc welding is that the heat source moves at constant speed on
the surface of the work piece, and that the size of the heat source is small compared to the size of
the work piece.
b. Welding residual stresses
The residual stresses caused by inhomogeneous temperatures are termed thermal stresses. These
elastic thermal stresses disappear after removing the inhomogeneous temperatures which cause
them. Where major differences in temperature exist, the thermal stresses give rise to plastic
deformation and, after removal of the temperature differences and complete cooling, residual
stresses remain. During the welding process the weld area is heated up significantly relative to the
surrounding area and fused locally. The material expands as a result of being heated. The heat
expansion is restrained by the surrounding colder area, which gives rise to elastic thermal stresses.
The thermal stresses partly exceed the yield limit, which is lowered at elevated temperatures.
Consequently the weld area is plastically hot-compressed and, after cooling down, it thus displays
tensile residual stresses, and the surrounding area compressive residual stresses.
The fundamental equations in the thermo-elastic-plastic analysis of welds are:
(i) A change in temperature, ΔT, causes a volumetric strainαΔT.
(ii) At each point, the strain increment can be defined as [1].

(iii) The material obeys isotropic/kinematic hardening hypothesis.

(iv) The material properties e.g. the Young's modulus and the yield strength are assumed to be
temperature dependent

III. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

As a part of the research at IIT Delhi, the study of this project is undertaken under following stages.
A. Evolution of Weld Temperature Distribution.

169
The objective of this project is to model butt welding of two plates and carryout the transient
thermal analysis in ANSYS to determine the temperature distribution of the plates after the heat
input is simulated.
B. Determination of Residual Stresses.
Consequently to couple the transient thermal analysis with transient structural analysis to
determine the residual stresses and to draw conclusions from results.

IV. SIMULATION
A. Transient Thermal analysis
The welding simulation is carried out in ANSYS 15.0 workbench (Finite Element code). Model of butt
joint of the two plates is created in ANSYS design modeler. Thermal analysis is carried out in
'transient thermal module'.
a. Geomtry Model
60 mm X 60 mm X 6 mm thick plate is modeled with a 'v' groove of 60 degrees. In Figure 2.1 the weld
bead is divided into 4 parts to simulate the moving heat source through the element birth and death
technique.

Fig 2.1: Model of the plates with weld bead

b. Material Properties
ASTM 36 steel is chosen for the analysis. The process is a nonlinear elasto plastic deformation and
the required temperature dependent mechanical properties are fed into the material library in
ANSYS. For plasticity, bi linear isotropic hardening is used with yield strength and tangent modulus
varying with temperature. The thermal and mechanical properties of the material are given in Table
2.1

170
 c. Mesh
Fine mesh is used for weld zone and comparatively coarser mesh is used for the weld plates. The
size of the fine mesh being 1 mm. This selective meshing is shown in Figure 2.2.
d. Initial condition
Initial temperature of the weld plates is set to 22 °C.
e. Time settings
Simulation time is set to 400 seconds with a time step of 1 second. It is very important to carry the
thermal analysis with large time settings in order to facilitate the cooling of the weld bead to room
temperature. The results thus obtained will be used as an input for the mechanical analysis further.

Table 2.1: Temperature dependent mechanical and thermal properties [ 2]

Fig.2.2: Mesh of the welded plates

171
 f. Heat input
A calculated heat generation of 1.8x1010 W/m3 is given as a function of time and coordinate along
weld length.
g. Element birth and death technique
The total length of the weld bead 60 mm is divided into 4 regions assuming that the weld speed is 15
mm/sec. The heat input is given in a sequence such that the elements in a particular region element
are alive for one second with heat input and dead for the rest 3 seconds. This simulates a moving
heat source across the length of the weld. Figures 2.3 to 2.6 show the sequential heat sourceinput.

Fig. 2.3: Active element region with heat input from 0 to1 second.

Fig. 2.4: Active element region with heat input from 1 to 2 seconds.

172
 h. Thermal Boundary conditions
The two extreme edges of the plates are maintained at 22 °C. Other2?
i. Radiation and convection
Radiation boundary condition is imposed with an emissivity of 0.3 and convection boundary
condition with a convection coefficient of 15 W/m2 °C and surrounding temperature as 22°C

Fig.2.5: Active element region with heat input from 2 to3 seconds.

Fig.2.6: Active element region with heat input from 3 to 4 seconds.

173
B. Results and Discussions: Thermal
The variation of maximum temperature in the weld bead with time is shown in the Figure 2.7. The
initial temperature is 22°C and with the heat input, temperature rises to a peak of 1916 °C at the end
of first second in region 1, then the maximum temperature appears in the region 2 and so on as the
heat source moves. After 4 seconds, it cools down for 396 seconds to attain boundary temperature.

Fig.2.7: Maximum temperature variation with time

The temperature distribution around the weld bead after 400 seconds is shown in Figure 2.8. The
weld bead is cooled to 29°C. It can be seen from Figure 2.8 that the temperatures of portions away
from weld bead decreases from 29.6 °C at bead to 22°C at the edges

Fig.2.8: Temperature distribution at 400 seconds

C. Transient Structural Analysis with Two Edges Fixed

The transient thermal module is coupled with the transient structural module as shown in the
Figure 2.9. The same material properties, geometry and mesh are used for this analysis also. The
element for structural analysis is switched
Fixed support at both edges of the plates is shown in the Figure 2.10. Fixed support constrains all the
degrees of freedom of the edge.

174
 Fig.2.9: coupled analysis.

Fig.2.10: Fixed edges of the plate

Thermal load (temperature distribution), output of the thermal analysis is imported into the
mechanical simulation for all time steps (400 sec).
D. Results and Discussions: Mechanical
This section discusses the residual stresses and strains induced in the welded plate due to the
applied thermal load. Figure 2.11 shows the equivalent stresses (von- Mises) induced in the weld
plate. The residual stresses are high at the four corners of the plates which is 322 MPa, which is close
to the yield stress of the material (350MPa). But the stresses around the weld bead is 200 to 100
MPa which are smaller than the yield stress of the material.

175
 Fig.2.11: Equivalent residual stress distribution in the welded plates

Figure 2.11 shows the plot of residual stresses along X direction mid-way of the welded plates.
These stresses are lowest at the weld bead (50MPa) and highest (250MPa) away from the weld zone
and decrease gradually as one moves towards the edge of the plate. The transverse stress
distribution graph is shown in Figure 2.12 .Red line shows membrane stresses and the blue line
shows bending stresses.

Fig.2.12 contour plot of σxx

Figure 2.14 shows the contour plotted normal stresses in the Y direction i.e. perpendicular to the
plate on the outer surface. Maximum stress occurs on the surface of the weld. Figure 2.15 shows
the stress distribution graph. Red line shows the membrane stresses and the blue line shows the
bending stresses.

176
Figures 2.16 and 2.17 show the stress distribution in Z direction along the weld bead. The maximum
stress is 250 MPa. Compressive stresses are induced at the bottom. Light red plot in the graph
depicts membrane stresses and the blue plot shows bending stresses.
Figure 2.18 shows the plastic strain in the welded plates. Maximum strain is at the weld bead which
is 0.0356. Minimum strain is 0.

Fig.2.13: Normal stress (σxx ) variation along centre line perpendicular to weld bead direction

Fig.2.14: contour plot of σyy Fig.2.16: contour plot of σzz

Fig.2.15:Normal stress (σyy ) variation along center line perpendicular to weld bead direction.

177
 Fig.2.17: Normal stress (σzz) variation along centre line in weld bead direction

Fig.2.18: Plastic strain.

V SIMULATION 2 – TRANSIENT STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS WITH

ONE EDGE FIXED.
A similar analysis as the previous simulation is carried out with the welded plates fixed along only
one edge .All other parameters remaining the same.
A. Results
Residual stresses in the plate are maximum at the weld bead with maximum von- Mises stress as
464 MPa. The stresses induced in this simulation are higher than the stresses in the previous
simulation (both the edges fixed).

VI CONCLUSION
Numerical results obtained from the FE analysis are in good agreement with the experimental and
analytical results available in the open source. The residual stress patterns are also similar,
suggesting that FE predictions are reliable for further studies of estimation of fatigue life of the
structure.

178
The maximum temperature of the weld bead after cooling for 400 seconds is 29.6 °C. During the
heat input maximum temperatures of 1916 °C occurs at the moving heat source. This temperature
is in the range of melting point of the material.
From the simulations carried out, for plate fixed at both the ends maximum von Mises stress is 322
MPa which is very close to the yield strength of the material, it occurs only at the corners of the
support.so this maximum stress depends on the type of boundary condition chosen. But the
maximum residual stress occurring at the weld bead is 200 to 180 MPa, which is less than the yield
strength of the material. Results also show that welding induces plastic deformation which is
retained in the material.
While in the simulation with one edge fixed the maximum von - Mises stress obtained is 464 MPa
which is very high compared to the yield stress of the material (350 MPa). Which shows serious
residual stress is present at a coupon level. The residual stresses obtained in simulation 2 are very
high compared to the stresses obtained in simulation 1 when both the edges are fixed.
The plastic strain in both the simulations is nearly equal.

VII WAY AHEAD

The plate thicknesses involved in submarine welding are very high which demands multipass
welding. In numerical simulation of a multipass welding, element birth and death technique is
used. In this technique, the elements are killed at the beginning of the thermal analysis and then for
every load step a cross-sectional “strip” of elements of given pass, are reactivated and loaded to
simulate the passage of the heat source and the filling material deposition. Such simulation can be
done to find out the residual stresses and stress distribution in submarine hull.

REFERENCES
1. Zuheir Barsoum, 2008, Residual Stress Analysis and Fatigue, Doctoral Thesis Stockholm,
Sweden.
2. Dragi Stamenković, Ivana Vasović. Finite Element Analysis of Residual Stress in Butt Welding Two
Similar Plates, 2009, Scientific Technical Review, Vol. LIX, pg 57-60.
3. Reenal Ritesh Chand, Ill Soo Kim, QianQian Wu, Bong yong Kang and JiYeon Shim., Prediction of
Residual Stress and Welding Deformation in Butt-weld Joint for Different Clamped Position on
the Plates., 2014, International Journal of Engineering Science and Innovative Technology
(IJESIT). Pg 34-44
4. Xavier Ficquet, Ashley Bowman., 2012, Measurement of Bending Residual Stress on a Hull
Section of a Submarine, 31th International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic
Engineering.
5. M. Jeyakumar, T. Christopher, R. Narayanan and B. Nageswara Rao., Residual Stress Evaluation
in Butt-welded IN718 Plates,2013, Canadian journal of basic and applied sciences, pg 88-99
6. M. Zubairuddin, S. K. Albert, S. Mahadevan, M. Vasudevan, V. Chaudhari and V. K. Suri,
Experimental and finite element analysis of residual stress and distortion in GTA welding of
modified 9Cr-1Mo steel., 2014, Journal of Mechanical Science and Technology, pg 5094 – 5104

179
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF RESIDUAL STRESSES DUE TO WELDING IN SUBMARINE HULL
Lt P Nagaja 1, Dr Suhail Ahmed 2 and Dr B.P.Patel 3
1. Trainee Officer, Naval Construction Wing, IIT Delhi, New Delhi, 110016
amx155517@iitd.ac.in
2. Professor, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, 110016
suhail@am.iitd.ac.in.
3. Professor, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, 110016
bppatel@am.iitd.ac.in.

ABSTRACT
In this paper, welding of ASTM 36 carbon steel plates was studied numerically. The Finite Element
Analysis (FEA) of residual stresses in butt welding of two similar plates is performed with
commercial FE software ANSYS®. This analysis includes a finite element model for the transient
thermal and mechanical welding simulation. It also includes a moving heat source, material,
temperature dependant material properties, metal plasticity and elasticity, transient heat transfer
and mechanical analysis. The welding simulation was considered as a sequential coupled thermo-
mechanical analysis and the element birth and death technique was employed for the simulation
of filler metal deposition. The residual stress distribution, strain and magnitude in the axial
direction were obtained. The results were initially validated with open source literature and further
analyser for multiple boundary conditions

180
Author's Biodata

Lt P Nagaja Prof. Suhail Ahmed Prof. B P Patel

Presenting Author's Biodata

Lt P Nagaja is a graduate of Mechanical Engineering from J B Institute of Engineering and
Technology. She is presently pursuing PG Diploma in has done a PG Diploma in Naval Construction
from Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi. Her fields of interest include – FE applications, Ship
Structures and Warship Design.

Co-Author's Biodata
Dr Suhail Ahmad is a Structural Engineer. He did his BSc Engineering (Hons & Distinctions), (Civil),
AMU, and Aligarh. (1975), M.Tech (Structural Dynamics), University of Roorkee. And Ph.D., Indian
Institute of Technology Delhi. (1988). Joined the Department of Applied Mechanics IIT Delhi as a
lecturer in 1982 and subsequently held the positions of Assistant Professor, Associate Professor and
Professor. He has 192 published research papers in national & international refereed
journals/conferences. His research interests include Off-shore Structure Dynamics, Safety and
Reliability, Finite Element Applications, Computational Mechanics, Stochastic Composite Behaviour,
Impact, Bio Mechanics.
Dr. B.P. Patel is a Mechanical Engineer. He did his Mechanical Engineering, 1992 from A.P.S.
University, Rewa, MP. Mechanical Engineering Fellowship, 1994, IAT, Girinagar, Pune. M.Tech.,
Mechanical (Design Engineering), 1999,Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Ph.D., Applied
Mechanics, 2005, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, Allahabad. He has worked in
Defence Institute of Advanced Technology, Pune. He is currently Professor at Indian Institute of
Technology Delhi. He has 104 published research papers in national & international
journals/conferences. His research interests include Finite Element Method, Mechanics of
Composites, Static/Dynamic Buckling Analyses of Beams/Plates/Shells, Higher-Order Shear
Deformation Theories, Smart Structures, Fluid-Structure Interactions, Rotating Structures, Thermo-
Structural Analysis and Experimental Stress Analysis.

181
 article
DEPENDENCY OF HYDRODYNAMIC COEFFICIENTS
15 ON GEOMETRICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR AN
AXISYMMETRIC SUBMERSIBLE BODY
Lt Nitin Sharma, Department of Applied Mechanics Indian Institute of
Technology, Delhi-110016 | email: amx155515@iitd.ac.in

Abstract Controlling ship motions at sea has always been a challenge for the ship designers. His or
her responsibility has been to ensure not only that the ship can safely ride out the roughest storms
but should also be able to proceed on course under severe conditions with a minimum of delay and
carry out specific missions successfully. The behaviour of these vessels can be predicted by
estimating their hydrodynamic coefficients. In this study the effect of variation of the vehicle length
on the hydrodynamic forces and moments is presented. Geometry used in the study is DARPA
SUBOFF body. The change in length is accomplished by making a parametric CAD model of an
axisymmetric body. The study is confined to bare hull configuration of the vehicle. Hydrodynamic
coefficients determined for the various configurations of axisymmetric body are the axial force,
normal force and pitching moment coefficients.

I. Introduction
A ship may be very well designed as regards its structure, strength, propulsion, weapons system,
survivability etc., but all this excellent work will not bear fruit if the ship does not perform well in
seaway. An open ocean is a challenging environment at high sea states where a warship is expected
to perform its role to the best of its capabilities.
Sophisticated experimental techniques and modern computer applications in ship motion theories
have presented an opportunity for a designer to consider the sea keeping and manoeuvring
qualities of the ship at an early stage of design.
The behaviour of these vessels can be predicted by estimating their hydrodynamic coefficients. In
this study the effect of variation of the vehicle length on the hydrodynamic forces and moments is
presented. The change in length is accomplished by making a parametric CAD model of an
axisymmetric body. The study is confined to bare hull configuration of the vehicle.

II. Methodology and Objectives

A. Geometry: A 3D parametric model was developed using PARAMARINE. DARPA SUBOFF model
used in the current study is an axisymmetric body developed by DARPA, U.S.

Fig 1. DARPA SUBOFF Model

182
B. Hydrodynamic Coefficients: To determine hydrodynamic coefficients a Naval Architect package
to be used to calculate both linear and non-linear hydrodynamic coefficients.
C. Objective: Study the dependency of HDCs on geometrical considerations.

Varia on Analysis
l Graphs
l Single hull
l Diameter l Rela ons
l 3 Degrees of
l Unappended or
constant l Dimensional
bare hull Fredom
l Vary the length windows
Parametric
design Results

Fig 2. Structure of Study

III. Definition of Hydrodynamic Coefficients

The terms in the equations of motion which represent the hydrodynamic forces and moments
acting on the vehicle are often expanded in a Taylor series about some convenient reference
condition. For aircraft and surface ships this reference condition is usually taken to be the
equilibrium condition of forward motion at constant speed. One approach to determining the
hydrodynamic forces and moments on a manoeuvring submarine is to assume that at any point in
time these forces and moments are functions of the motions (velocities and accelerations),
propeller rpm, and appendage angles, at that point in time. This is a similar approach to that used
for surface ships.
As with surface ships, the relationship between each motion variable and the resultant force or
moment can be represented by a mathematical model comprising a series of coefficients. The
resulting forces and moments due to each of these are then added to give the total force or moment
on the submarine at that point in time. The choice of which coefficients, and hence which
mathematical model, to use will depend on experience. It is normal for a single mathematical
model to be used by a given organization to represent different submarines. Once the
mathematical model representing the forces and moments has been selected, different
submarines, or changes to the shape of a given submarine, can be represented by changing the
values of the individual coefficients.
It is important to recognize that as different organizations may use different mathematical models it
is not necessarily possible to compare the values of coefficients between different organizations.
Also, as improvements in understanding are achieved, and the mathematical model updated, care
needs to be taken to ensure that legacy coefficient sets are retained for past submarines.
For example, Surge Force

183
IV. Results and Discussion
Using Maneuvering module of Paramarine, both linear and nonlinear hydrodynamic coefficients
can be determined. In the current study, only HULL HDCs are calculated, ignoring propulsion and
appendages relating HDCs. the length of the body is changed keeping the diameter constant. Set of
hydrodynamic coefficients is collated for each model. Dimensional window of L/D is kept as 10-14.
Length is varied from 55 m to 80 m. Diameter is constant at 7.8 m.
The following observations were made from the results:
a) Variations in nonlinear HDCs were only observed in Pitch and Yaw motions.
b) Variations were seen in linear HDCs for different length and diameter configuration.
c) By changing the diameter from 6.5 m to 9 m with a step of 0.5 m, another set of hydrodynamic
coefficients is evaluated. The length is kept constant at 65 m. No appreciable changes in HDCs, in
this case, were observed.

Table 1 HDCs for Yaw, N

Length(m) 55 60 63 70 75 80
N UU 0 0 0 0 0 0
N UV0 -16.157 -17.124 -17.719 -19.109 -20.097 -21.096
N UP -0.57 -0.57 -0.57 -0.57 -0.57 -0.57
N UR0 -0.446 -0.425 -0.416 -0.398 -0.385 -0.376
N Vnu0 11.1 11.1 11.1 11.1 11.1 11.1
N Rnu -2.57 -2.57 -2.57 -2.57 -2.57 -2.57
N Vdot 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.42
N Rdot -0.615 -0.663 -0.692 -0.758 -0.804 -0.85

184
 Table 2 HDCs for Pitch, M
Length(m) 55 60 63 70 75 80
M UU 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
M UV 0 0 0 0 0 0
M UW0 13.116 14.203 14.85 16.343 17.398 18.443
M VV 21.7 21.7 21.7 21.7 21.7 21.7
M VR -11.2 -11.2 -11.2 -11.2 -11.2 -11.2
M PR 0.78 0.78 0.78 0.78 0.78 0.78
M Qnu 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3

Table 3 Linear HDCs

Length(m) 55 60 63 70 75 80
Mw 13.116 14.203 15.279 16.343 17.398 18.443
Nv -13.116 -14.203 -15.279 -16.343 -17.398 -18.443

0
55 60 63 70 75 80
-10

-20

-30
N UVO N Up N URO

N VnuO N PQ N RABR

N Rnu N Vdot N Rdot

Fig 3. Varia on of HDC for Yaw, N

50

40
M (X 10³)

30

20

10

0
55 60 63 70 75 80
Length (M)

M UU M UWO M VV
M VP M VR M PP

M PR M RRO M Wdot

Fig 4. Varia on of HDC for Pitch, M

185
 19

Mw 18.443
18

17 17.398

16 16.343
Mw (X 10³)

15 15.279

14 14.203

13 13.116

12
55 60 65 70 75 80
Length (m)

Fig 5. Varia on of Linear HDC Mw

This equation shows the relationship between HDC Mw and L/D ratio:

Relation for Zw
Similarly, a relation between Zw and L/D ratio can be evaluated:

Relation for Nv

V. CONCLUSION
Hydrodynamic coefficients for axisymmetric underwater vehicle with different L/D ratio were
estimated using a CAD tool. Estimates were found to be in coherence with experimental studies.
The current study shows that the linear hydrodynamic coefficients vary linearly with L/D ratio,
while the nonlinear coefficients vary nonlinearly within the range of L/D ratio tested.

186
VI. REFERENCES
Ray, Amit (2010). 'Analysis of Manoeuvring of Underwater Vehicles'. PhD Thesis, Indian Institute of
Technology, Delhi
Praveen, P.C. & Krishnakutty (2013). 'Study on the effect of body length on the hydrodynamic
performance of an axi-symmetric underwater vehicle' NISCAIR-CSIR, India
Nohan, Meyer (1996). 'A Simplified Dynamics Model for Autonomous Underwater Vehicles'
Autonomous Underwater Vehicle Technology, 1996. AUV '96, Proceedings of the 1996 Symposium
de Barros, E.A. & Pascoal, A. (2008). 'Investigation of a method for predicting AUV derivatives'
Ocean Engineering, Volume 35, Issue 16
Abkowitz, M. A. (1969) 'Stability and Motion Control of Ocean Vessels', M.I.T. Press, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology.
Renilson, Martin (2015), 'Submarine Hydrodynamics', Springer.
Feldman, J (1979), 'Revised standard submarine equations of motion', DTNSRDC.

187
DEPENDENCY OF HYDRODYNAMIC COEFFICIENTS ON GEOMETRICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR
AN AXISYMMETRIC SUBMERSIBLE BODY
1
Lt Nitin Sharma
1. Trainee Officer, Naval Construction Wing, IIT Delhi, New Delhi - 110016
amx155515@iitd.ac.in

ABSTRACT
Controlling ship motions at sea has always been a challenge for the ship designers. His or her
responsibility has been to ensure not only that the ship can safely ride out the roughest storms but
should also be able to proceed on course under severe conditions with a minimum of delay and
carry out specific missions successfully. The behavior of these vessels can be predicted by
estimating their hydrodynamic coefficients. In this study the effect of variation of the vehicle length
on the hydrodynamic forces and moments is presented. Geometry used in the study is DARPA
SUBOFF body. The change in length is accomplished by making a parametric CAD model of an
axisymmetric body. The study is confined to bare hull configuration of the vehicle. Hydrodynamic
coefficients determined for the various configurations of axisymmetric body are the axial force,
normal force and pitching moment coefficients.

Author's Biodata
Presenting Author's Biodata
Lt Nitin Sharma is a graduate of Naval Architecture from the Cochin
University of Science and Technology. He has done a PG Diploma in Naval
Construction from Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi. His fields of interest
are Marine Hydrodynamics and Structural Dynamics.

Lt Nitin Sharma

188
 article

16 STRUCTURAL SIMILITUDE AND SCALING OF

PRESSURE VESSELS
Lt. Harleen Kaur (hrln.kr@gmail.com)
Naval Construction Wing,
Applied Mechanics Department, IIT Delhi

ABSTRACT
The study conducted involves the use of structural parameters to develop the similitude theory and
is therefore called structural similitude of a thin walled pressure vessel. It gives relationship of
prototype and its scaled models in such a way that when the scaled models' responses are
multiplied by the scale factor, behaviour of the prototype for which it was developed is predicted.

Governing equations and dimensional analysis (Buckingham pi-theorem technique) are two
methods which have been used to find scale factors. Buckingham pi-theorem technique was
employed for dimensional analysis after studying parameters on which pressure vessel is designed.
Complete similarity between prototype and its scaled model exists when pi-products obtained
from dimensional analysis are identical for both of them. Pi-products containing ratio of
dimensions of pressure vessel can be validated for complete similarity. ANSYS software has been
used to validate the pi-products concerning total deformation, equivalent elastic strain and
equivalent (von-Mises) stress of externally pressurised thin walled un-stiffened sphere and thin
walled un-stiffened cylindrical vessel with ends closed with circular plates. Scaled model results
obtained from ANSYS analysis are multiplied by their scale factors (predicted model results) and
then compared with the prototype results also obtained from ANSYS. Complete similarity is
achieved when predicted prototype results completely map on to prototype results

1. Introduction
1.1 Thin wall pressure vessels: Thin wall pressure vessels are widely used in industry for
storage and transportation of liquids and gases when configured as tanks. They also appear
as components of aerospace and marine vehicles such as rocket and balloon skins and
submarine hulls (although in the latter case the vessel is externally pressurized, violating
one of the assumptions listed below). Two geometries which are of concern here are:

− Spherical pressure vessels

− Cylindrical pressure vessels

The walls of an ideal thin-wall pressure vessel act as a membrane (that is, they are unaffected by
bending stresses over most of their extent).

189
 Fig 1: A section of thin wall sphere Fig 2: A section of thin wall cylinder

A sphere is the optimal geometry for a closed pressure vessel in the sense of being the most
structurally efficient shape. A cylindrical vessel is somewhat less efficient for two reasons: (1) the
wall stresses vary with direction, (2) closure by end caps can alter significantly the ideal membrane
state, requiring additional local reinforcements. However the cylindrical shape may be more
convenient to fabricate and transport. Further, more usable area for a given volume can be
obtained from a cylindrical pressure vessel vis-à-vis spherical pressure vessel.
Assumptions:
The followings assumptions were made for carrying out the study:
1. Wall Thinness: The wall is assumed to be very thin compared to the other dimensions of the
vessel. If the thickness is t and a characteristic dimension is R (for example, the radius of the
cylinder or sphere) we assume that t/R << 1, or R/t >> 1, Usually R/t > 10. As a result, we may
assume that the stresses are uniform across the wall.
2. Symmetries: In cylindrical vessels, the geometry and the loading are axi-symmetric.
Consequently the stresses may be assumed to be independent of the angular coordinate of the
cylindrical coordinate system. In spherical vessels, the geometry and the loading are spherically
symmetric. Therefore the stresses may be assumed to be independent of the two angular
coordinates of the spherical coordinate system and in fact are the same in all directions.
3. Uniform Internal Pressure. The internal pressure (P) is uniform and everywhere positive. If the
vessel is also externally pressurized, for example subject to atmospheric pressure, P is defined
by subtracting the external pressure from the internal one, a difference called gage pressure. If
the external pressure is higher, as in the case of a submarine hull, the stress formulas should be
applied with extreme caution because another failure mode: instability due to wall buckling
may come into play.
4. Ignoring End Effects: Features that may invalidate the symmetry assumptions are ignored. This
includes supports and cylinder end caps. The assumption is that disturbances of the basic stress

190
 state are confined to local regions and may be ignored in basic design decision such as picking up
the thickness away from such regions. The results obtained, are valid for regions away from the
discontinuities.
1.2 Similitude Theory: A mathematical model of a system can be made using all the systems
variables and parameters. For similar systems these parameters are similar but not
identical. The theory of similitude searches for a relationship (transformation) which maps
the models parameters onto the prototypes parameters. This means that each model
parameter is proportional to its corresponding prototype parameter. This proportional
factor is called the scale factor.
The two methods which are used to determine scale factors in this study are:
- governing equations
- dimensional analysis
Further, ANSYS software has been used to validate the scale factors which we obtained from the
above mentioned methods.

2. Methods to determine scale factors

In order to find the scale factors, the following methods were used:
a. Direct use of governing equations
b. Dimensional analysis (Buckingham-pi theorem)
c. Use of FEM tool (ANSYS software)
2. 1. Governing equations
2.1.1 Governing equations for sphere:
Following are the deformation, strain and stress equations used for a sphere:

191
192
193
2.3 ANSYS software
2.3.1 ANSYS software for sphere:
ANSYS static structural was used to create a prototype and two 1/10th dimensionally scaled
down models using the mechanical properties of grade 65 steel. Pressure was scaled down for
one of the models. These models were solved to find out total deformation, equivalent elastic
strain and equivalent (von-Mises) stress of externally pressurised thin walled un-stiffened
sphere.

194
Dimensions and pressure values for prototype and models is given in the table (table 1) below:

Table 1: Dimensions and pressure values for spherical prototype and models
Prototype Model 1 Model 2
Radius(m) 5 0.5 0.5
Thickness(m) 0.05 0.005 0.005
Pressure(bar) 100 10 100

2.3.2 ANSYS software for cylinder:

ANSYS static structural was used to create a prototype and two 1/10th dimensionally scaled
down models. Pressure was scaled down for one of the models. These models were solved to
find out total deformation, equivalent elastic strain and equivalent (von-Mises) stress of
externally pressurised thin walled un-stiffened cylinder.
Dimensions and pressure values for prototype and models which were modelled and analysed
using ANSYS software are given in the table below:

Table 2: Dimensions and pressure values for cylindrical prototype and models
Prototype Model 1 Model 2
Radius(m) 5 0.5 0.5
Thickness(m) 0.05 0.005 0.005
Length(m) 60 6 6
Pressure(bar) 100 10 100

195
3. Results and conclusion
3.1. Results
3.1.1 Results for Sphere
3.1.1.1 Total deformation
The results for total deformation for externally pressurized thin wall sphere - prototype and its
scaled down models, obtained using ANSYS software are shown below in figure 3:

1/100

Model 1

1/10

Prototype

Model 2
Fig 3: Total deformation in externally pressurized thin wall sphere – prototype and
scaled down models

3.1.1.2 Equivalent elastic strain

The results for equivalent elastic strain for externally pressurized thin wall sphere - prototype
and its scaled down models, obtained using ANSYS software are shown below in figure 4:
 1/10

Model 1

Prototype

Model 2

Fig 4: Equivalent strain in externally pressurized thin wall sphere – prototype

and scaled down models

3.1.1.3 Equivalent (von-Mises) stress

The results for equivalent (von-Mises) stress for externally pressurized thin wall sphere -
prototype and its scaled down models, obtained using ANSYS software are shown below in
figure 5:
 1/10

Model 1

Prototype

Model 2

Fig 5: Equivalent (von-Mises) stress in externally pressurized thin wall

sphere – prototype and scaled down models

3.1.2 Results for Cylinder

3.1.2.1 Total deformation
The results for total deformation for externally pressurized thin wall cylinder - prototype and its
scaled down models, obtained using ANSYS software are shown below in figure 6:
 Fig 6: Total deformation in externally pressurized thin wall cylinder – prototype
and scaled down models

i: Directional deformation in x-direction -The results for directional deformation in x-

direction for externally pressurized thin wall cylinder - prototype and its scaled down
models, obtained using ANSYS software are shown below in figure 7
 Fig 7: Directional deformation in x-direction in externally pressurized thin wall
cylinder – prototype and scaled down models

ii: Directional deformation in y-direction -The result for directional deformation in y-direction
for externally pressurized thin wall cylinder - prototype and its scaled down models,
obtained using ANSYS software are shown below in figure 8:
 Fig 8: Directional deformation in y-direction in externally pressurized thin wall cylinder
– prototype and scaled down models

iii: Directional deformation in z-direction -The result for directional deformation in z-direction
for externally pressurized thin wall cylinder - prototype and its scaled down models,
obtained using ANSYS software are shown below in figure 9:
 Fig 9: Directional deformation in z-direction in externally pressurized thin wall
cylinder – prototype and scaled down models

3.1.2.2 Equivalent elastic strain

The results for equivalent elastic strain for externally pressurized thin wall cylinder - prototype
and its scaled down models, obtained using ANSYS software are shown below in figure 10:
 Fig 10: Equivalent strain in externally pressurized thin wall cylinder – prototype
and scaled down models

3.1.2.3 Equivalent (von-Mises) stress

The results for equivalent (von-Mises) stress for externally pressurized thin wall cylinder -
prototype and its scaled down models, obtained using ANSYS software are shown below in
figure 11:
 Fig 11: Equivalent (von-Mises) stress in externally pressurized thin wall
cylinder – prototype and scaled down models

3.1.3 Tabulated result

3.1.3.1 Tabulated result for sphere

Table 3: Result for sphere

Prototype Model 1 Model 2
Total deformation(m) 8.93e-3 8.75e-3 8.93e-5 8.75e-5 8.93e-4 8.75e-4
Equivalent Strain(m/m) 2.85e-3 2.48e-3 2.85e-4 2.48e-4 2.85e-3 2.48e-3
Equivalent Stress(Pa) 5.18e8 4.95e8 5.18e7 4.95e7 5.18e8 4.95e8
 3.1.3.2 Tabulated result for cylinder

Table 4: Result for cylinder

Prototype Model 1 Model 2
Total deformation(m) 3.91e-1 3.67e-3 3.43e-3 4.74e-6 3.43e-24. 74e-5
Deformation in x-dirn (m) 4.48e2 5.20e2 5.88e4 5.33e4 5.88e3 5.33e3
Deformation in y-dirn (m) 5.43e2 5.38e2 5.13e4 3.39e4 5.13e3 3.39e3
Deformation in z-dirn (m) 3.84e1 3.91e1 3.21e3 3.34e3 3.21e2 3.34e2
Equivalent Strain(m/m) 3.85e-2 1.16e-3 3.63e-3 2.09e-4 3.63e-2 2.09e-3
Equivalent Stress(Pa) 5.06e9 1.35e8 5.27e8 1.01e7 5.27e9 1.01e8

3.2 Conclusion
For both sphere and cylinder: deformation is dependent directly on P and r2/t and equivalent
elastic strain and equivalent (von-Mises) stress are dependent directly on P and r/t. The scale
factors which we obtained as a result of prototype and model analysis using ANSYS software
validate the pi-product results and satisfy the governing equations. Hence, the scale factors
determined using the established similitude theory, can be used to make a scaled model which
accurately predicts prototype response.
Theory of similitude is a very useful tool as it predicts response without developing full scale
models. It is very economical where large scale testing is required. It gives us rules that should
be followed, if complete prototype results are to be predicted using a scaled model.

References
1. Beenish Batul and Abeera Sohail “Structural Similitude And Scaling Of A Pressure Vessel”
SUPARCO technical report, Jan 2010
2. Sergio De Rosa and Francesco Franco “Analytical similitudes applied to thin cylindrical shells”
Università di Napoli “Federico II”,Via Claudio 21, 80125 Napoli, Italy. Oct 2015
3. Roy Burcher and Louis Rydill (1994). “Concepts in submarine design” Cambridge, Press
syndicate of the university of Cambridge
4. Carl T.F. Ross (2001). “Pressure vessels - external pressure technology” England, Horwood
publishing limited
5. David Roylance, 23 Aug 2001. “Pressure vessels”, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge
6. Prof Vijendra Singh (2002). “Physical metallurgy”, India, Standard publishers distributors
Author's Biodata

STRUCTURAL SIMILITUDE AND SCALING OF PRESSURE VESSELS

Lt Harleen Kaur 1

1. Trainee Officer, Naval Construction Wing, IIT Delhi, New Delhi-110016. hrln.kr@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
The study conducted involves the use of structural parameters to develop the similitude theory and
is therefore called structural similitude of a thin walled pressure vessel. It gives relationship of
prototype and its scaled models in such a way that when the scaled models' responses are
multiplied by the scale factor, behaviour of the prototype for which it was developed is predicted.
Governing equations and dimensional analysis (Buckingham pi-theorem technique) are two
methods which have been used to find scale factors. Buckingham pi-theorem technique was
employed for dimensional analysis after studying parameters on which pressure vessel is designed.
Complete similarity between prototype and its scaled model exists when pi-products obtained
from dimensional analysis are identical for both of them. Pi-products containing ratio of
dimensions of pressure vessel can be validated for complete similarity. ANSYS software has been
used to validate the pi-products concerning total deformation, equivalent elastic strain and
equivalent (von-Mises) stress of externally pressurised thin walled un-stiffened sphere and thin
walled un-stiffened cylindrical vessel with ends closed with circular plates. Scaled model results
obtained from ANSYS analysis are multiplied by their scale factors (predicted model results) and
then compared with the prototype results also obtained from ANSYS. Complete similarity is
achieved when predicted prototype results completely map on to prototype results.

Lt Harleen Kaur is a graduate of Metallurgical Engineering from the PEC

University of Technology, Chandigarh. She is presently undergoing a PG
Diploma course in Naval Construction Wing from Indian Institute of
Technology, Delhi. Prior to this, the officer was working in Honda Cars India
Ltd, R&D Division as a graduate engineer trainee for a period of nine
months. Her fields of interest include – Pressure Vessel Design and
Construction, Metallurgical Analysis and Corrosion Science.

206
 article

17 PUMP LESS HYDRAULIC DESIGN FOR

STEERING SYSTEM
(LT CDR DK TIWARI
IHQ MoD (NAVY), DIRECTORATE OF NAVAL DESIGN
(SUBMARINE DESIGN CELL)

1. Introduction.
Submarines are considered one of the most potent war platforms available to date. The
underwater platform moves in three dimensions in water i.e it has to steer in a two dimensional
plane to maintain course as well as in vertical plane to maintain depth. The precise movement of
the submarine is affected by use of control surfaces. These control surfaces need a considerable
amount of power to move from one angle to another opposing the hydrodynamic forces that are
generated on these planes. Hydraulic power has been used to provide the necessary force to these
planes through certain mechanisms for a long time on all forms of marine vessels. However, when it
comes to submarines, the design of hydraulic steering system adopts a different design philosophy
as compared to surface ships. For example, space constraints and noise from running machinery
are critical factors that differentiate the very design philosophy between surface and sub surface
platforms. This paper aims to provide a overview of the existing form of steering gear systems being
used in submarines and to bring out scope of improvements in the current design.

2. Conventional Hydraulic System

Figure 1 shows a hydraulic steering system consisting of a single rod double acting hydraulic cylinder
which acts an actuator to turn the control surfaces. The piston of the cylinder is moved by hydraulic
pressure supplied by a pump through a directional control valve. The directional control valve is
remotely operated to change the direction of actuator movement based on control logic of the
planes. However, in modern day steering systems, use of directional control valve for changing the
direction of actuator is replaced by use of variable discharge pumps which are two way positive
displacement pumps. These pumps have movable swash plates which can change the flow of fluid
as well as the direction of actuator based on control logic. Further improvements in basic design
have given way to use of double acting cylinders (fig 2). Double acting cylinders provide better load
carrying capacity as compared to single acting cylinders due to use of two bearings for side load
support. Also, it is easier to have same speed in extension as well as retraction speed due to equal
area on both the cavities of the actuator cylinder.

207
Figure 1. Conventional Hydraulic System with Pump

208
 Figure 2. Double Acting Hydraulic Cylinder with two Rods

2.1 Problem Area

In spite of providing a very reliable steering system , the above mentioned arrangement suffers
few shortcomings which are detrimental to operation of underwater platforms. Failure of
power pack(Pump) is a critical scenario which can leave the submarine without any control on
depth or direction. One way to counter this problem is to have redundancy in form of an
additional Pump for such situations. However,, it is to be understood that unlike a surface ship, a
submarine has little space for such design philosophies. So, a better idea would be to use
another hydraulic system which may be existing in the boat for some other purpose in such
emergencies. This idea necessarily indicates that Ship's General hydraulic system be used for
steering in case of emergencies. The General Hydraulic system on under water platforms is
normally a accumulator based hydraulic system in which stored hydraulic energy is used as a
power source as and when required. This being a passive system (without any moving parts) is
highly reliable. Therefore, a new improvised steering gear system is developed which uses
variable discharge pump as main power source and a accumulator system for emergency power
source.
2.2 Hydraulic Accumulator
A Hydraulic Accumulator is equipment that stores energy in form of pressurized hydraulic fluid.
The hydraulic fluid in the accumulator is pressurized by various means such as spring, dead
weight and high pressure air. Submarines use pressurized air for various other purposes and is
available stored in numerous air cylinders carried on the platform. It is thus logical to use
hydraulic accumulators which are pre charged with high pressure Air. A typical gas/Air charged
accumulator is shown in figure 3. The pressure and volume design of accumulators is carried on
the basis of system requirement. The pressure and volume variation of such a accumulator is
not linear as shown in figure 4. The relation between pressure and volume is defined by
universal gas law i.e PVn = Const., Where n is the Polytropic exponent.

209
 Figure 3. Gas Charged Accumulator

Figure 4. Pressure Volume relation in a Gas Charged Accumulator

210
3. Steering System with Accumulator as Emergency Power Source
3.1 Description. During normal operation this system works with the hydraulic pump
supplying pressurized fluid to the actuators through directional control valve. The change
in direction of the actuator is obtained either by using a Variable Discharge Pump or a
remotely controlled Direction controlled Valve. In case of failure of Pump, hydraulic fluid is
made available from the accumulator. This system ensures that hydraulic fluid is available
even during failure of pump. However, this system also has certain disadvantages as
discussed in succeeding paragraphs.

Accumulator

Pump

Directional
control
Valve

Figure 5. Hydraulic Steering System with Accumulator

3.2 Problem AreaIn case of emergency situations, the accumulator provides necessary
pressurised fluid to the actuators. However, with every operation, working fluid is drained
to tanks through the direction control valve. This will eventually drain the accumulator and
also change the operating pressure of the system. If the accumulator has to be charged,
then a separate pump needs to be installed and operated continuously in the system. Any
increase in the size of the system is against the initial design approach of this paper where
space conservation in submarine has been considered as one of the major factors of
system design. Also, use of spool type DCVs results in continuous drainage of stored oil
from accumulators even when the Steering system is not in use. In subsequent paragraphs
a new design has been proposed which aims at minimizing oil transfer from the system to
tanks thereby reducing or eliminating use of Hydraulic pump.

4. Proposed New Hydraulic System without Pumps.

4.1 To cater for oil transfer from the accumulator system to tank and subsequent need of using
a pump, a modified hydraulic system as indicated in figure 5 has been proposed. The new
design does not require continuous running of pump during operation of the system. The
system consists of two Actuators and two Accumulators. Each actuator is having two
chambers of different effective areas. For example, the Accumulator 1 has left chamber of

211
 volume 6 l whereas the right chamber has a volume of 4 L during one complete stroke
length. Actuator 1 is used for extension of load and Actuator 2 is used for Retraction of load.
Four Non Return Valves(NRVs) have been used in the system as indicated to minimize oil
leakage through DCVs. There are two DCVs which connect the Accumulator to the Actuators
on remote orders from control system. A third Accumulator has been installed to
supplement oil into the system as and when required.
4.2 Functioning of the System.
4.2.1 Piston Movement to Left.To begin with let us assume that the pressure of
Accumulator 1 and 2 are set at 100 and 65 bars respectively. Both Actuators are
connected to the load which means if the load moves both the Actuators exhibit
piston movement. Let us assume that the Piston of both the Accumulators is at the
right extreme. A control system command actuates the left envelope of DCV 1 and
right envelope of DCV 2 simultaneously. Oil from Accumulator 1 flows into the right
chamber of Actuator 1. The Piston moves towards left, thereby moving the Load. Oil
from left chamber is forced into Accumulator 2. Whilst the Piston of Actuator 1 is
moving, the Actuator 2 Piston also moves towards left. As the piston of Actuator 2
moves left, the Oil in right chamber gets compressed and moves into the left chamber
through bypass of DCV 2. It is to be noted that the volume of right chamber is 4 L. So
this 4 L oil moves to left chamber whose capacity is 6 L. At this moment additional 2 L
oil is filled in the left chamber of Actuator 2 from reserve Accumulator 3. At the end of
piston movement from left to right, the pressure in Accumulator 1 and 2 are 69 and 84
bars respectively.
4.2.2 Piston Movement to Right.Control system actuates Left envelope of DCV 2 and right
envelope of DCV 1. Accumulator 2 discharges 4 L of oil into the left chamber of
Actuator 2 causing Piston movement to right. Pressure in Accumulator 1 drops to
initial value of 65 Bar. As the piston moves right, 6 L oil from right chamber moves into
Accumulator 1 resulting in pressure rise to initial value of 100 Bar. Simultaneously,
piston of Actautor 1 also moves right. Oil from left chamber moves into right chamber
through bypass of DCV 1. The left chamber takes in only 4 L of oil , balance 02 L oil
moves to a reserve tank. With this one complete cycle of piston movement is affected.
Accumulator 1 and 2 attain the initial pressure of 100 and 65 bar respectively. Two
liters of Oil is fed into the system form reserve Accumulator and a same volume is
discharged to Oil tank. It can be seen that this Hydraulic system requires 02 Liters of Oil
charge per cycle of piston movement whilst a conventional system would have
required 10 Liters of Oil charge per cycle. This greatly minimizes use of Pump for
hydraulic system operation. A pump is however installed to independently charge the
reserve Accumulator.
4.2.3.For a similar functioning, a conventional Accumulator based Hydraulic system would
consume 10 L of hydraulic oil per cycle of Piston operation. One cycle of Piston
operation includes movement of piston from left to right and back to left extreme.
When the piston moves from left to right, 4 L of oil will get exhausted to tank while 6 L
of oil will be returned to tank as the piston moves from right to left. Whereas, the new
system will return only 2 L of oil per cycle of piston operation which is five times less
than that of a conventional system.

212
 Figure 6. Proposed Hydraulic System without Pump

5.Conclusion.
General Hydraulic System for Steering a Submarine was reviewed in this paper. The limitations and
scope for improvement were brought out. An improved Hydraulic system without use of any
Hydraulic Pump was proposed to replace the conventional pump operated hydraulic system. The
advantages of the proposed system are as indicated below.

213
(a) A pump less system necessarily means a quiet system which is one of the critical design criteria
for under water Platforms.
(b) Use of Accumulators increases the reliability of the system as this is a passive system which
works on stored energy in form of pressurized Air.
(c) Hydraulic system with Accumulators have inherent ability to dampen flow related vibrations
and minimize ill effects of water hammering effect.
(d) Elimination of large pumps save a lot of space on the Platform.

References.
1. EBook on “International Conference on Mechanism Science and Control Engineering”, as
available on www.books.google.co.in
2. Hydraulic Design Lectures of NPTEL as obtained from www.nptel.ac.in
3. Qiu Y et.al, “Suppressing Water Hammer of Ship Steering Systems with Hydraulic Accumulator”.
Published in Journal of Process Mechanical Engineering,2013.
4. T. Hunt, N. Vaughan; Hydraulic Handbook, 9th Edition.

ABSTRACT
Hydroplanes are used to steer Submarines to maintain set course and also to maintain depth or a
combination of both. These Hydroplanes are subjected to hydrodynamic forces as a Submarine
moves in water. Hydroplanes generate opposing forces to that of hydrodynamic forces thus
providing necessary moment to maintain course or depth. Traditionally, the motive power for
movement of these hydroplanes is obtained from pressurised hydraulic fluids through a set of
mechanisms. These mechanisms include Hydraulic Pumps, Rods, Turning Mechanisms etc which
occupy space and generate considerable noise. Space conservation and noise reduction are
important factors in submarine design. Progressive design improvements in Hydraulic Steering
Systems have aimed in minimising both space requirement and noise reduction. This resulted
in use of Hydro Pnumatic Accumulators as power source thus reducing the number of large
Hydraulic Pumps which generated much of the noise emanated from steering systems. However,
conventional Accumulator based Hydraulic Steering System have certain inherent limitations.
Pressurised oil from Accumulators is utilised in Hydraulic Cylinders to generate necessary forces
and are then exhausted into a drain tank. For a continuously operating system such as steering
system, continuous replacement of this oil would be required. This in turn will require a hydraulic
Pump that operates continuously as a part of steering system. Thus, a conventional Accumulator
based hydraulic system will only reduce the number of Pumps in the system.
This paper aims at proposing a hydraulic system with two Accumulators which operate so that oil
from one Accumulator is fed back to another and vise -versa thus reducing the volume of oil
exhausted from the system by 80 %. This system will help conserve space and reduce noise due to
elimination of continuously operating Pump from the system. Also, the reliability of the system
increases as Accumulators are passive devices which work on stored energy in form of pressurised
air.

214
Author's Biodata
Lt Cdr DK Tiwari (42679-Y) is an Alumnus of Naval Academy, Mandovi (Goa) . The Officer was
Commissioned on 01 Jul 06 in the Marine Engineering Branch of the Indian Navy. The Officer
graduated from Naval College of Engineering on 25 Dec 08 in Mechanical Engineering. Thereafter,
the Officer served as Assistant Engineer Officer of INS Trishul at Mumbai from Jul 10 to Jul 13. He
completed his post graduation in Nuclear Engineering from IIT Madras, Chennai in Jun 15. The
Officer is presently serving as Deputy Director of Naval Design (Submarine Design Group) at IHQ,
MoD (N), New Delhi.

215
 article

18 DESIGN, FABRICATION AND ANALYSIS OF COMPOSITE

DRIVE SHAFT FOR FUTURE UNDERWATER APPLICATION
P.V.Chandra Sekhara Rao Lt Cdr Swathi G
Assistant Professor Deputy Director
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering Directorate of Naval Design (SDG)
RGUKT (IIIT Basar) Indian Navy
Telangana State, India.

Abstract
A Drive Shaft, also known as propeller shaft is a mechanical part, that transmits the Torque
generated by engine to propel the vehicle. When concerned to the underwater vehicles, the
composite shaft reduces the weight and manufacturing cost. Further, being inherently corrosion
resistance the composites are ideally suited for marine application. The physical appearance of the
drive shaft resembles like a cylindrical structure of specified diameter. In this project, a scaled down
composite drive shaft is considered for lab testing. The concept is validated with Bicycle shaft
results. However, the same material can be used to manufacture the shafts for Ships and
submarines. The Specimen is made by replacing the existing conventional steel drive shaft with
suitable composite materials like E-Glass/Epoxy having high stiffness and high strength to weight
ratio in addition of filler materials like 'CO' & General purpose resin, the composite drive shaft is
fabricated manually by hand wrapping method. In this paper, an attempt has been made to
investigate the characteristics of both conventional and composite drive shaft both theoretically
and experimentally. The final results are then compared with each other and the results have
marked with optimal characteristics for composite shaft than that of conventional shaft under
equal load conditions. The Static and Dynamic analysis was carried out theoretically by using ANSYS
Software.

I. INTRODUCTION
The present work aims to design and fabricate a drive shaft made of composite material which
could replace the conventionally available steel shaft. The composite drive shaft produced is made
to undergo mechanical tests and is analyzed under static and dynamic load conditions with ANSYS
tool. The entire work can be divided in to the following steps: (1) Design of conventional and
composite drive shaft, (2) Methodology for preparation of test specimen, (3) Experimental analysis
of Specimen (4) Finite element analysis of Specimens and (5) Validation of FE results with
Experimental results. The material properties are estimated for the e-glass/epoxy composite cloth
fibre. The geometric model is modeled in ANSYS platform based on the dimensions of existing
shaft. Then the model is fabricated. The aim of this work is to design and fabricate a composite drive
shaft which can replace the existing steel drive shaft. A shaft-driven bicycle is a bicycle that uses a
drive shaft instead of a chain to transmit power from the pedals to the wheel arrangement.

216
Functions of the Drive Shaft
l It must transmit torque.
l During the operation, it is necessary to transmit maximum low-gear torque.
l The drive shafts must also be capable of rotating at the very fast speeds required by the vehicle.
l The drive shaft must provide a smooth, uninterrupted flow of power.

II. LITERATURE REVIEW

Shaft drives were introduced over a century ago, but were mostly supplanted by chain-driven
bicycles due to the gear ranges. The first shaft drives for cycles appear to have been in United States
and England. The Drive shafts are carriers of torque; they are subject to torsion and shear stress,
which represents the difference between the input force and the load. They thus need to be strong
enough to bear the stress. Most automobiles today use rigid driveshaft to deliver power from a
transmission to the wheels. A pair of short driveshaft is commonly used to send power from a
central differential, transmission to the wheels. Recently, due to advancements in internal gear
technology, a small number of modern shaft-driven bicycles have been introduced and the study is
being carried to manufacture the composite shafts on larger vehicles.

III. DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

The following specifications were assumed suitably, based on the literature and available standards
of bicycle drive-shafts:
l Torque transmission capacity of the driveshaft (T) = 900 N-m.
l Minimum bending natural frequency of the shaft (fnb(min)) = 50 Hz.
l Outside radius of the driveshaft (ro)=6mm,length of shaft=295mm.

IV. DESIGN OF CONVENTIONAL STEEL DRIVE-SHAFT

A. Torsional strength

Since the primary load on a driveshaft is torsion, the maximum shear stress (tmax) at the outer radius
(ro) of the shaft is given by:

Assuming Tmax =90MPa and a factor of safety (F.S)=3,we get (tmax) =15600MPa.

217
B. Bending Natural Frequency
According to Bernoulli-Euler beam theory, by neglecting shear deformation and rotational inertia
effects, the bending natural frequency of a rotating shaft is given by:

'p' is density of EN8 Steel=7800kg/m3

'E' for EN8 steel=290GPa

V. DESIGN OF CONVENTIONAL STEEL DRIVE-SHAFT

A. Torsional Strength
Since the nature of loading is pure shear, 70% of the plies can be set at ±45° and the remaining 30%
at 0º and 90º orientations.

Assuming Tmax =210 MPa,and a factor of safety (F.S)=6,we get

tmax=176.6MPa

B. Bending Natural Frequency

'p' is density of e-glass/epoxy=1900kg/m3

'E' for e-glass/epoxy cloth =38700MPa
m=0.25kg/m

Upon Substitution,

218
VI. METHODOLOGY FOR TEST SPECIMEN PREPARATION
Mild steel threaded rod of specification M8 has been considered. A mixture of general purpose
resin with an accelerator which serves as a sticky glue is prepared. Small quantity of hardener like
'CO' is added to the mould. The mixture now serves as a perfect binding agent with the thorough
mixture of the above chemical agents. The e-glass epoxy composite cloth is split into long pieces
uniformly.
The threaded rod is fixed in the bench-vice and the prepared mixed resin is applied uniformly over
the entire length of the rod by changing its position.
The splitted pieces of composite cloth are now wrapped along its entire length so as to assure
perfect bonding between the threaded rod and cloth. After wrapping, the resin mixture is again
applied onto the cloth which serves a fine layer. Similarly, the whole procedure is repeated with 12
layers of composite cloth with cloth fibre orientation angles as 0o , 90o, +45o, -45o each of three
layers so as to produce a uniform solid cylindrical composite rod of 12mm diameter with 295mm
length. The thickness of composite cloth fibre is about 0.31mm.

VII. TORSION TEST

A. Composite Drive Shaft

Fig. 1. Minimum Torque output- 42kgm Fig. 1. Minimum Torque output- 148kgm

B. Conventional Steel Shaft

Fig. 3. Minimum Torque output-22kgm Fig. 4. Minimum Torque output-85kgm

219
VIII. SHEAR TEST

Fig. 5. Applied Load 30kN

Fig. 6. Composite Specimen after failure Fig. 7. Steel Specimen after failure

IX. MODELLING

Fig. 8. Catia Model of Specimen

220
X. FEA ANALYSIS
A. Torsion analysis of composite specimen

Fig. 9. Model Deformation Fig. 10. Von-misses stress

B. Shear analysis of composite specimen

Fig. 11. Maximum Deflection Fig. 12. Von mises Stress

C. Torsional analysis of steel specimen

Fig. 13. Maximum Deflection Fig. 14. Von mises Stress

221
D. Shear analysis of steel specimen

Fig. 15. Maximum Deflection Fig. 16. Von mises Stress

E. Dynamic analysis of composite specimen

Fig. 17. Maximum Deflection Fig. 18. Equivalent Von-mises Stress

F. Dynamic analysis of steel specimen

For Dynamic analysis a rotational speed of 800-1200 rpm is applied and analyzed for deformation
and stresses.

Fig. 19. Maximum Deflection Fig. 20. Equivalent Von-mises Stress

222
XI. COMPARISION OF RESULTS

COMPOSITE SHAFT
2000
1800
1600
1400
STRESS (MPa)

1200
1000
800 STRESS
600
400
200
0
42 66 88 100 119 148
AVG TORQUE (Kg m)

STEEL SHAFT
18000
16000
14000
STRESS (MPa)

12000
10000
8000
6000 STRESS
4000
2000
0
27 46 55 66 77 85
AVG TORQUE (Kg m)

GRAPH 1: TORQUE (VS) STRESS

TABLE I. SHEAR TEST RESULTS

Material Load(kN) Results
Deforma on(mm) Shear Strain Shear Stress (MPa)
Composite 30 0.1145 0.001527 111.73
Steel 40 0.6792 0.008528 661.09

TABLE II. DYNAMIC TEST RESULTS

Material Results
Deforma on(mm) Shear Strain Shear Stress (MPa)
Composite 1.0828e-9 6.2497e-9 0.0010928
Steel 2.0 e-7 1.87e-9 0.0003748

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XII. CONCLUSION
Composite shaft made from E-Glass/ Epoxy cloth fibre is fabricated and experimentation is done by
taking torsion and shear load. For numerical study, the test specimens are modeled using CATIA
software and analyzed with FEA. After applying boundary conditions and torque, the torsional
deflections are obtained for each torque value. List of the results are plotted. In conclusion, when
the Finite Element results are compared with the theoretical results, the observations carried out
were successful and yield very small variations from the expected results. From the results, it's clear
that the composite rod performs much better than conventional steel rod under torsion loads. The
composite also performs almost equally to that of steel shafts. The composite also performs almost
equally to that of steel shafts. Properties such as high strength, low weight, corrosion resistance
make composite material advantageous over conventional steel for marine applications.

REFERENCES
1. Rastogi, N. "Design of composite drive shafts for automotive applications. Visteon Corporation,
SAE technical paper series."
2. Design and Analysis of a Propeller Shaft of a Toyota Qualis by "Syed Hasan".
3. A. Bijagare, P.G. Mehar and V.N. Mujbaile "Design Optimization & Analysis of Drive Shaft", Vol. 2
(6), 2012, 210-215
4. S.C Playle, K.D.Korkan and E.von Lavante texas A&M University, College station, Texas. A
Numerical Method for the Design and Analysis of Counter-Rotating Propellers (vol.2, no 1, jan-
feb.1986).
5. Jon Foreman (Reprinted from American Laboratory January 1997) Dynamic mechanical analysis
of polymers.
6. Rastogi N, (2004) "Design of composite drive shafts for automotive applications", SAE, technical
paper series, 2004-01 0485.
7. Chowdhuri M.A.K., Hossain R.A., "Design Analysis of an Automotive Composite Drive Shaft",
'International Journal of Engineering and Technology', Vol. 2(2), 2010, pp.45-48.
8. T. Rangaswamy, et al., "Optimal design and analysis of automotive composite drive shaft", 2004.

224
Author's Biodata
Lt Cdr Swathi G is posted as a Deputy Director Naval Design (Submarine Design Group). She has
been involved in design of various systems of underwater platforms. She is an aluminous of IIT
Chennai & Delhi.

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 article

19 DESIGN OF NEXT GENERATION ELECTRIC

DRIVE SUBMARINES

Captain Arvind Ranganathan (GM Project Varsha)

1. Indian Navy's next-generation submarine should have an Electric Drive and advanced Prime
Mover that would allow it to patrol the seas with near-silence for decades. The Electric Drive
would replace the existing direct Mechanical connection between the turbines and the
Submarine's Propellers. In the new configuration, the Power Source will run Electric motors that
propel the Submarine. Electric Drives would prove to be much quieter than the current Direct-
Drive method.
2. The Indian Navy has Operated Electric Drives in the 1990s, but found them to be too slow and
maintenance needy. Technological advancements over the past few decades provide Electric
Propulsion with required hassle-free speeds. Since Submarines rely on Stealth to hide from
enemies, a nearly silent engine would make them harder to find.

ABSTRACT
3. Several International Navies are developing or using Electric Drives1 in Naval Ships. The Electric-
drive development effort centers on the Integrated Power System (IPS) Program. Several
Public/Private-sector firms like L&T, BHEL, Siemens etc are now pursuing Electric Drives by
taking advantage of the strong Power, Technological and Industrial base available in India.
Electric Drive offers significant anticipated benefits for Navy Ships & Submarines in terms of
reducing Life-cycle cost, increasing stealth, Payload, Survivability, Power available for non-
propulsion uses. Potential disadvantages include higher near term costs, increased technical
risk, increased system complexity, and less efficiency in full-power operations.
4. Certain risk involved in developing electric-drive technology have been mitigated by the
successful development of electric-drive technology for commercial ships. To date developing
common electric-drive components is feasible for several kinds of Ships and Submarines and
that pursuing electric drive technology in the form of a common family of components could
have advantages for the Navy.
5. The potential savings associated with a common system are difficult to estimate, but could be
substantial. The concept of developing a common system or family of components poses issues
for policymakers concerning the extent of commonality across electric-drive-equipped Navy
Ships & Submarines and the use of competition in the development and procurement of
electric-drive technology.

Long Term Advantages

6. Electric drive is often discussed as a specific system that could be available in the near future
program, many elements of electric-drive technology have the potential to evolve and improve

226
 over time. This suggests that policymakers might consider addressing electric drive as not
simply a proposal for a specific system that might require a few nearer-term acquisition
decisions, but as a broader technology area that might require longer-term management and
oversight and a series of research, development, and procurement decisions stretching over
the course of several years. If conducting longer-term management and oversight of electric
drive is considered appropriate, it might be assisted by developing an electric-drive technology
development Road Map or Master Plan extending perhaps 10 to 25 years into the future.
7. The Indian Navy's interest in electric-drive technology is consistent with the decisions of other
navies in recent years to move to electric-drive technology for their own ships. The strong
interest in electric drive by other navies (particularly the British Navy& US Navy) suggests that
electric drive offers a variety of War fighting and Life-Cycle Cost advantages for Naval Ships&
Submarines. The interest shown by other navies in electric drive, however, also demonstrates
that there are multiple technical approaches to electric drive that should be assessed.
8. Incorporating electric-drive technology into Navy Submarine acquisition programs could add
technical or schedule risk to those programs. The potential amount of risk varies, depending on
the exact configuration of the system in question. More advanced approaches to electric drive
present greater potential technical or schedule risk, but also promise greater potential cost
effectiveness. Electric-drive components presenting potential technical or schedule risk include
motor drives, motors, generators, electrical distribution system, advanced propeller/stern
configurations and overall system design and integration.
9. Issues, Indian Navy needs to address include demonstrating full scale IPS technologies, that to
date have been demonstrated at partial scale, improving thermal performance, achieving
desired levels of acoustic quieting and shock resistance and designing overall system interfaces,
controls, and module specifications. Some of the risks involved in developing electric-drive
technology have been mitigated by the successful development of electric-drive technology for
commercial ships. Commonality is not an end in itself but rather would be a Strategy for policy
makers to consider in seeking the most cost effective path to apply electric-drive technology
across the fleet. Pursuing a common electric-drive system or family of components could in
theory lead to the emergence of a dominant or monopoly supplier to the Navy of electric-drive
technology, components, and systems.
10. One possible approach would be to require the common electric-drive system to be designed to
a so-called open architecture. Another possible approach would be to provide continuing
funding to firms other than those who supply the current electric drive system to finance
continued development of potential competing technologies or components. The issue is
highly charged because specific motor types are associated with specific firms competing for a
part of the Navy's prospective electric-drive program. The electric motors associated with
electric drive systems for large Ships & Submarines could be divided into five basic categories-
Synchronous motors, Induction motors, Permanent Magnet (PM) motors, Superconducting
Synchronous motors, and Superconducting Homo Polar motors.

227
11. The Synchronous motor can be considered the most mature technologically in application to
large ships. There is a consensus among both naval and industry sources that the synchronous
motor, if scaled up to the higher horsepower ratings needed to move surface combatants and
Submarines at high speeds (i.e., 30+ knots), would be too large and heavy to be suitable for use
on these ships. The induction motor is generally considered the second-most mature motor
type for application to large ships, after the synchronous motor. It is the type of motor that could
be used in the Navy's full-scale, land-based electric-drive systems.
12. By the same token, however, most sources argue that the induction motor is not sufficiently
compact or quiet to be suitable for use on Navy Submarines. Using an electric-drive system
with an induction motor(rather than the currently less mature PM motor) might help mitigate
the risk of integrating electric-drive technology into the future program, but would preclude
achieving motor commonality across surface ships and submarines.
13. The PM motor can be made quieter and significantly more power dense than the induction
motor, enough so that it is consequently considered suitable for use on submarines as well as
Surface combatants2. The PM motor can be used in a common electric drive system for Navy
surface ships and submarines. We should focus on the PM motor as the motor available in the
nearer term that would be suitable for a common electric-drive system. Sources differ regarding
the amount of technical risk involved in scaling up the PM motor to full size. The
Superconducting Synchronous motor, if successfully developed, could be more power-dense
and quieter than a PM motor. The Superconducting Synchronous motor is less mature
technologically than the PM motor. The term Homo polar (i.e., unipolar) refers to the fact that
this motor uses Direct Current (rather than Alternating Current) electricity and does not require
either a reversal of current or electrical commutation. As a result, the magnetic field and the
electrical current in the armature of a homo polar motor are constant over time and space (i.e.
Unvarying). The superconducting Homo polar motor, if successfully developed, could similarly
be more power-dense and quieter than a PM motor. Homo polar motor, like the
Superconducting Synchronous motor, is less mature technologically than the PM motor.

Electric Drive vs. Mechanical Drive.

14. In a Submarine/Ship with a Mechanical-drive system, the power-producing capability of the
Propulsion engines typically represents 75 percent to 85 percent of the total power-producing
capability2. This power-producing capability is devoted exclusively to Submarine propulsion
and is not available for non-propulsion uses, even when the submarine/ship is stationary or
traveling at low speed. Submarines/Ships with an electric-drive system, in contrast, can be
designed so that a single set of engines produces a common pool of electricity that is used for
both Propulsion and the non-propulsion electrical loads. Such a system is known as an
Integrated Electric-Drive (IED) system or IPS. With an IED even when the Submarine/Ship is
traveling at high speed, power can be momentarily diverted away from the propulsion system
to a non-propulsion system that needs a short burst of high strength power without appreciably
slowing the Submarine.

228
15. Life Cycle Cost. Submarines with IED/IPS would have reduced Life-Cycle Cost. Future
Submarines would use Podded Propulsor (PP). The pod, which contains the electric motor
driving the propeller, can be designed to swivel in a circle so as to direct the propeller's thrust in
any direction and thereby steer the Submarine. A PP eliminates the need at the stern for a
lengthy, exposed horizontal shaft leading to the propeller and a rudder for steering. With a PP,
there are fewer exposed components to create drag, and the propeller encounters a more
uniform (i.e., less disturbed) water flow, increasing its efficiency (i.e., its ability to use its RPMs
to create thrust). Using PP could improve a Submarine's maneuverability by permitting a tighter
turning radius and by giving it the ability to change the direction of movement or its orientation
even at very low speeds. A PP might also offer certain advantages in terms of maintenance and
repair, since the pod can be over the life of the Submarine, the savings from reduced fuel
consumption promise to significantly outweigh the potential increase in initial procurement
cost associated with electric drive, thus significantly reducing the Submarine/ship's total life-
cycle cost, also known as Total Ownership Cost (TOC).
16. The Indian Navy is now placing increased emphasis on Life-Cycle Cost in the acquisition process
so as to more effectively capture the long-term cost consequences of its acquisition decisions.
In addition to savings on fuel, it is anticipated that electric-drive systems may require less
maintenance and fewer crew members to operate than mechanical-drive systems. Electric-
drive systems can be designed to be highly automated and self monitoring. Reductions in
maintenance and crew size would further reduce Ship Life Cycle Cost.
17. Increased Stealth. Electric drive promises to be significantly quieter acoustically than
mechanical drive. Since acoustic noise is an important component of a Submarine/Ship's overall
detectability, Submarine's equipped with electric drive are designed to be less detectable (i.e.,
more stealthy) than equipped with mechanical-drive technology. Potential revised
propeller/stern arrangement with rotating PP and no rudder motor compared to conventional
propeller/stern arrangement with horizontal shaft, strut, propeller and rudder.
18. Alternatively, if fuel storage capacity is held constant, electric drive can permit an increase in
Submarine/Ship operating endurance (range). The significantly improved quieting promised by
electric drive may be the single most important benefit of electric drive to the Navy's Submarine
community. Stealthiness is fundamental to a Submarine's survivability and effectiveness and
acoustic noise remains the most reliable method by which submarines can be detected and
tracked at longer ranges. The Navy has expended significant resources over the last few decades
on making its submarines increasingly quiet (so as to stay ahead of increasingly capable
adversary submarine-detection equipment). Electric drive would provide the next significant
improvement in acoustic quieting on Submarines. New propeller/stern configurations made
possible by electric drive might reduce the wake signature of Submarines/Surface ships, which
could reduce their detectability by remote overhead sensors and improve their chances of
defeating much-feared wake homing torpedoes.
19. Increased Payload. Electric Drives would permit the Turbines to be located higher in the
Submarines, reducing the amount of interior space required for the ducts that are needed to
take air down into the engines and to carry exhaust gases away .Electric drive would free up
space aboard the Submarine/Ship that can be used to carry additional payload (e.g., Weapons

229
 &Sensors). Freed-up space can also be used for other purposes, such as increasing the size of
staterooms for members of the ship's crew so as to improve their quality of life aboard ship,
which has recently emerged as Indian Navy's priority.
20. Increased Survivability. Electric-drive can improve Submarine/Ship survivability in several ways.
Eliminating mechanical drive's tyranny of the shaft line can improve ship survivability by
eliminating the possibility that one or more of the Submarine's long shaft lines will be thrown
out of alignment and rendered useless by a nearby weapon explosion.
21. Electric drive in the future could also facilitate the replacement of today's Prime Movers (e.g.,
Steam turbines or Diesel engines or Gas turbines) and Generators with more efficient power-
producing technologies, including direct energy-conversion devices such as Fuel cells. It is
possible to place them in locations where they may be better protected from attack by certain
weapons (e.g., mines). Electric drive makes it possible to more widely distribute elements of the
propulsion system around the ship, making it less likely that a single weapon might disable the
entire drive system. With an IPS, the flow of power from distributed power sources can be
rapidly reconfigured in the event of damage to the ship to ensure a continued supply of
electricity to vital systems. This could be a very significant benefit, during battle damage to naval
ships .In addition, electric drive permits smaller propulsion machinery spaces, which could
facilitate better damage control and permit greater use of automated damage-control
technologies.
22. Increased Power Available for Non-Propulsion Systems. As mentioned earlier, electric drive
makes large amounts of power available for non-propulsion uses such as powerful Radar, Sonar,
laser Weapons, High-Power Microwave weapons, Electro Magnetic rail guns, Electro Thermal
guns or rapidly charging the Batteries of Unmanned Air Vehicles (UAVs), Unmanned
Underwater Vehicles (UUVs), and High-energy undersea sensor networks. Some of these
functions, particularly the weapons, may require Peak power levels measured in tens of
megawatts and adding this much electrical-generating capacity to a mechanical drive ship
would incur substantial additional costs.
23. Indian Navy's current Mechanical-drive systems, particularly reduction gears that have been
specially engineered for quiet operations, are generally not found in commercial applications,
limiting economies of scale in their production and support. In, contrast, electric-drive
propulsion will benefit from increasing production and support economies of scale, and will
also be able to take advantage of rapid technological advances in the large and vibrant
commercial electrical-power and electronics industries.
24. Disadvantages. Electric drive has potential disadvantages in terms of higher near-term costs,
increased program risk, increased system complexity, and less efficiency in full-power
operations or schedule risk to those programs, since electric-drive technology is less mature
than mechanical-drive technology for application to naval ships. However as seen from above
the potential advantages of Electric Drive propulsion significantly, outweigh the few
disadvantages.

230
CONCLUSION
25. The next generation Submarines for Indian Navy with Electric Drive Propulsion Systems would
have significant advantages over the Mechanical Drive Propulsion System. Electric-Drive
technology offers benefits for design of future submarines in terms of reducing Ship Life-Cycle
Cost, increasing Stealth, Payload, Survivability and Power available for Non-Propulsion uses.
26. Even though, Electric-Drive Submarine Systems would initially be more expensive to procure
than Mechanical-Drive systems, the procurement cost of Electric-Drive systems would come
down over time, and the higher initial costs of Electric-Drive systems would be more than offset
over the longer run by reduced Submarine/Ship Life-Cycle operating and support costs.
27. The Cost-effectiveness of Electric Drive for future Submarines should be examined not by
focusing on the Electric Drive System or any of its components in isolation, but holistically by
examining the effect that Electric Drive has on overall Submarine Cost and Capability. With
availability of advanced Electric Drive Technology and Industry in India waiting to Develop
technologically advanced Ships/Submarines, this opportunity to design next generation
Submarines with Electric Drive Propulsion should be best utilised by Indian Navy.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Navy's Next-Gen Stealth Sub could run silently for 50 years, John Roach.
2. Electric-Drive Propulsion for U.S. Navy ships: background and issues for congress July 31, 2000.

231
Author's Biodata
1. The Paper, titled Next Generation Electric Drive Submarines has been prepared by Captain
Arvind Ranganathan (50934-H) currently posted as GM at Project Varsha, IHQ/ MoD(Navy). The
officer has Served on Various Naval Ships and Submarines Including INS Chakra, EKMs, DMDE,
ND(MB), AMBA, DSMAQ, P 75, HQATVP and SBC(V).
2. The officer has written and published over 18 Technical papers in National/International
Journals. The paper does not contain any classified information.

232
 article

20 FEASIBILITY OF USING LITHIUM TITANATE BATTERIES

FOR EXPLOITATION ON BOARD CONVENTIONAL
SUBMARINES AND RAPID CHARGING WITH MARINE
GAS TURBINE GENERATOR
Cdr RS Ramesh (51501-Y) Cdr Ramesh Kumar Lakra (51502-Z)

Synopsis
The lead acid batteries have been traditionally used on board conventional submarines and the
usage of lithium ion batteries has been limited due to heavy discharge limitations, Thermal
runaway and fire hazard. The advances in lithium based battery chemistries have resulted in a
number of high performance compositions. Amongst them, Lithium titanate batteries have been
found to be safer with rapid charging and discharging capabilities which are particularly suitable for
submarine applications. The paper attempts to bring out the features of a commercially available
battery, performance comparison with the existing batteries, the tactical and technical advantages
accrued, practical implementation and how wide spread use of this technology aligns with the
nation's energy security. The paper also attempts to study the use of a marine gas turbine generator
to take advantage of the rapid charging capabilities of the battery thereby considerably lowering
the indiscretion rate. Combined use of these technologies would provide such a submarine a
considerable edge over its conventional counter parts and better survivability in a hostile scenario.

1. Introduction
The type 877 EKM Russian, Type 209 German submarines currently forms the backbone of Indian
Navy Submarine Arm. The New Scorpene submarines are also being inducted in a phased manner.
All these platforms rely on the conventional Lead acid batteries. The paper aims to study the
feasibility of using Lithium Titanate batteries for propulsion and study the tactical/ technical
advantages as well as the challenges faced in implementation onboard. To focus on the subject the
study is constrained to the comparison with an EKM battery which is a representative battery for all
the conventional submarines. Also for the ease of study on the available data, a commercially
available SCiB TM (Super Charge ion battery from Toshiba) is used for comparative studies. The
paper also attempts to study the use of a marine gas turbine generator to take advantage of the
rapid charging capabilities of the battery thereby considerably lowering the indiscretion rate.

2. Lithium ion Batteries

The conventional Lithium ion does not have a defined unique chemistry like lead acid, nickel metal
hydride or Nickel Cadmium batteries. It has a number of different possible combinations, providing
a number of possibilities to variety application requirements. A lithium ion cell has three main
components: positive electrode (cathode), negative electrode (anode) and separator. This has both

233
advantages and disadvantages. On the one hand, various cathode and anode materials provide
flexibility to design batteries for specific application needs, but on the other hand the large number
of possible chemistries creates confusion to the customers until a particular chemistry is fully
developed and successfully tested in the field.1 The gravimetric and volumetric energy density with
competing technologies are as shown below:

Light Weight

300

250 Lithium ion

Volumetric Energy Density (Wh/lit)

200

150
Nickel Metal Hydride

100

Small Size
Nickel Cadmium

50
Lead acid

Flow ba eries
0
0 25 50 75 100 125
Gravimetric Energy Density (Wh/kg)

2
Fig 1. Comparison of Li ion technologies with competing technologies

It can be seen that Lithium ion technologies out run competing technologies in terms of both
volumetric and gravimetric densities. However, as the energy density keeps increasing, the failure
in case of a thermal runaway for lithium ion batteries leads to catastrophic discharge of energy
leading to fire and explosion, making them unsuitable for high power, mobile applications. With the
advancement in technologies, Li-ion battery based high torque Electric Vehicle (EV) like Tesla &BYD
are revolutionizing the Car industry. Germans are operating Li-ion battery based submarines and
USA, Australia and Japan are in the process of constructing a few. Germany has set up a test bed for
lithium based submarine battery. The most commonly used and available Li ion technology are
Lithium Cobalt Oxide ( LCO) ,Lithium Manganese Oxide (LMO) Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt
Oxide (NMC) Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP), Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide, (NCA) and the
Lithium Titanate ( LTO).The table 1 gives a comparison of Various available Li ion chemistries:

234
 Table 1: Comparison of Various Lithium Ion Technologies3

SNo A ribute LCO LMO NMC LFP NCA LTO

1 Voltage 3.60V nominal; 3.70V (3.80V) 3.60V, 3.70V 3.20, 3.30V 3.60V nominal; 2.40V nominal;
typical nominal; typical nominal; typical nominal; typical typical opera ng typical opera ng
opera ng opera ng range opera ng range opera ng range range 3.0- range 1.8-
range 3.0-4.2 3.0-4.2 V/cell 3.0-4.2V/cell, 2.5-3.65V/cell 4.2V/cell 2.85V/cell
V/cell or higher
2 Specific 150-200Wh/ 100-150Wh/kg 150-220Wh/kg 90-120Wh/kg 200-260Wh/kg; 70-80Wh/kg
energy kg. Specialty 300Wh/kg
(capacity) cells provide predictable
up to 240Wh
/kg.
3 Charge 0.7-1C, charges 0.7-1C typical, 0.7-1C, charges 1C typical, 0.7C, charges to 1C typical; 5C
(C-rate) to 4.20V (most 3C maximum, to 4.20V, some charges to 4.20V (most maximum,
cells); 3h charges to go to 4.30V; 3h 3.65V; 3h cells), 3h charge charges to
charge typical. 4.20V charge typical. charge me typical, fast 2.85V
Charge current (most cells) Charge current typical charge possible
above 1C above 1C with some cells
shortens shortens ba ery
ba ery life. life.
4 Discharge 1C; 2.50V cut 1C; 10C 1C; 2C possible 1C, 25C on some 1C typical; 3.00V 10C possible,
(C-rate) off. Discharge possible with on some cells; cells; 40A pulse cut-off; high 30C 5s pulse;
current above some cells, 2.50V cut-off (2s); 2.50V cut- discharge rate 1.80V cut-off
1C shortens 30C pulse (5s), off (lower that 2V shortens ba ery on LCO/LTO
ba ery life. 2.50V cut-off causes damage) life
5 Cycle life 500-1000, 300-700 1000-2000 1000-2000 500 (related to 3,000-7,000
related to (related to (related to depth (related to depth depth of
depth of depth of of discharge, of discharge, discharge,
discharge, discharge, temperature) temperature) temperature)
load, temperature)
temperature
6 Thermal 150°C (302°F). 250°C (482°F) 210°C (410°F) 270°C (518°F) 150°C (302°F) One of safest
runaway Full charge typical. High typical. High Very safe typical, High Li-ion ba eries
promotes charge charge ba ery even if charge
thermal promotes promotes fully charged promotes
runaway thermal thermal thermal
runaway runaway runaway
7 Applica Mobile Power tools, E-bikes, Portable and Medical devices, UPS, electric
ons phones, medical medical sta onary industrial, powertrain
tablets, devices, devices, needing high electric (Mitsubishi i-
laptops, electric EVs, load currents powertrain MiEV, Honda Fit
cameras powertrains industrial and endurance (Tesla) EV), solar
powered street
ligh ng
8 Remarks Very high High power Provides high Very flat voltage Shares Long life, fast
specific energy, but less capacity and discharge curve similari es charge, wide
limited specific capacity; high power. but low capacity. with Li-cobalt. temperature
power. Cobalt safer than Serves as One of safest Serves as range but low
is expensive. Li-cobalt; Hybrid Cell. Li-ions. Used for Energy Cell. specific energy
Serves as commonly Favorite special markets. and expensive.
Energy Cell. mixed with chemistry Elevated self- Among safest
Market share NMC to for many uses; discharge. Li-ion ba eries.
has stabilized. improve market share
performance. is increasing.

235
The radar charts of the Li ion batteries based on variables such as Specific energy, Specific power,
Safety, Performance, Life Span, Cost are as shown below4.

LCO LMO NMC

LFP NCA LTO

Fig 2. Radar chart of different of Li ion technologies

3. LiTe/LTO Batteries
Lithium titanate5 (full name lithium metatitanate) is a compound containing lithium and titanium. It
is an off-white powder at room temperature and has the chemical formula Li2TiO3. It is the anode
component of the fast recharging lithium-titanate battery. A lithium-titanate battery is a
rechargeable modified lithium-ion battery that uses lithium-titanate nano crystals on the surface
of its anode instead of carbon. This gives the anode a surface area of about 100 square meters per
gram, compared with 3 square meters per gram for carbon, allowing electrons to enter and leave
the anode quickly. This makes fast recharging possible and provides high currents when needed6. It
differs from other lithium-ion batteries because it uses lithium-titanate on the anode surface
rather than carbon. This is advantageous because it does not create an SEI layer (Solid Electrolyte
Interface), which acts as a barrier to the ingress and egress of Li-ion to and from the anode.7

4. Primary considerations while using Li ion batteries for

submarine applications:
There are a number of factors that needs to be considered while selecting the energy source
primarily due to the adverse conditions at which the submarine batteries operate, the space
considerations, and safety issues.

236
(a) Safety.The most important aspect that needs to be taken into consideration while choosing
a battery for submarine application is the safety of the power source. The enclosed nature
and the closed cycle ventilation of the battery make it difficult to manage the gas evolution
of Hydrogen, a highly flammable gas and release of highly corrosive sulphuric acid mist
while charging and agitation. Special layers of anti corrosive coating are required in the
battery pit which needs to be meticulously maintained using periodic pit washing using
mild alkaline agents to prevent the electrolyte from eating into the pressure hull of the
submarine. Lithium Tiatnate batteries are considered one of the safest batteries among
the lithium ion batteries and compares very favorably with respect to the lead acid
batteries since the chemical reactions inside the cells does not cause the release of
hydrogen gas into the atmosphere. This provides an opportunity to distribute the batteries
across machinery spaces since no hydrogen evolution happens during the battery
exploitation. This also increases the redundancy for critical submarine systems. Use of
these additional batteries can also increase the submerged endurance of the submarine.
The safety of these batteries was demonstrated by puncturing a fully charged Lithium
Titanate battery and has not resulted in fire or explosion and the temperature rise was
0 8
limited to 99 C . Lithium titanate chemistry is not prone to fire or explosion even if an
internal short-circuits is forced9. The crush test and the penetration test also yielded similar
results. Such robustness to shocks, vibrations and explosions make it an ideal candidate for
submarine applications.
(b) High rate of charge and discharge.To decrease the indiscretion rate, the battery shall be
capable of rapid charging using the minimum time. By ensuring that the submarine spends
minimum time doing snorting, increases its survivability as well as its tactical advantage in
terms of stealth. The battery shall also be able to sustain heavy discharge rates in tactical
situations or in emergencies. Such high charge /discharge cycles shall not cause thermal
runaway of the cell leading to fire onboard. Conventional Lithium ion batteries do possess
a risk of fire and smoke while undergoing rapid charge and discharge cycles. The lithium
titanate batteries posses a very light risk compared to other Lithium ion or Lead acid
battery technologies. Lithium titanate batteries are designed to sustain high current deep
discharges.
(c) Wide effective state of charge range (SOC). The deep discharging capability of its batteries
shall permit a submarine to stay underwater for longer duration before it comes up for
charging again. A deep discharge of the Lead acid batteries shortens its life and in worst
case scenario leads to polarity reversal and permanent damage. Even though the lead acid
batteries can sustain deep discharges up to 80% such a provision is resorted to only in case
of an emergency or tactical situation since it reduces the life of a battery. Lithium Titanate
batteries on the other hand are capable of sustained deep discharges of 0-100% discharge ,
thereby providing an exciting opportunity of to reduce the nominal battery capacity or
10
amount of batteries necessary for a system . Alternately, this wide range SOC shall be used
to augment the power storing capacity of the submarines inside the battery pits to
increase its endurance.

237
5. Advantages
TM
The Lithium Titanate battery chosen for the study was the Toshiba SCiB (Super Charge ion battery
from Toshiba) since it is widely available and used for various applications including applications
within India. Advantages are as follows:
(a) Safety. There is a very low risk of fire or explosion from internal short circuit caused by external
pressure or other factors. Lithium metal plating does not occur when operated in the normal
operational envelope unlike the other Lithium ion technologies. Therefore, SCiB™ is suitable for
various applications requiring high levels of safety and reliability, such as automobiles, industrial
equipment and stationary systems11.
(b) Long Life. Only a small degree of capacity degradation occurs even after more than 15,000
cycles (for a 20 Ah Cell)* of 60A charging and discharging. SCiB™ also requires low maintenance
even when it is used in applications that perform frequent charging/discharging such as large-
scale storage battery systems, hence being environment-friendly12. It can be seen that the life of
the SCiB™ battery exceeds the life of conventional batteries by a factor of 50.
(c) Increased operational availability. Due to the advantages enumerated above, for a life cycle of
20 years, there would not be a situation where in the submarine battery needs a change. Taken
over a period of 20 years, this would result in increased operational availability of a minimum of
450 days saved due to the absence of battery replacement time. Additionally at least 3 days per
month could be saved in Intermediate charge, full charge and equalizing charge. This would lead
to a saving of 36 days per year and 720 days during the 20 year cycle. Thus a minimum
operational availability of at least 2-2.5 years of the submarine over a period of 20 years
effectively provides an additional submarine for a squadron of eight submarines fitted with
SCiB™ batteries. This in itself could be a justification for a switchover to these batteries on the
existing platforms.
(d) Rapid Charging and increased endurance. SCiB™ can be charged with large current, enabling it
to be used in automobiles, buses and other vehicles that require quick charging similar to
refilling a gasoline car. Also, frequent rapid charging does not cause significant deterioration in
the SCiB™ performance13. This assumes special significance with respect to the tactical
advantage it offers to the submarine commanders. Currently, a minimum of 4-6 hours are spent
by the submarine per day to undertake charging. The rapid charging makes it possible to
partially charge the battery under 20 minutes and fully charge under one hour. This coupled
with the near 100 % discharge capability of the battery enables a submarine to remain
submerged for a prolonged duration which would be a revolutionary in terms of range
advantage, submerged endurance and indiscretion rate of a submarine.
(e) Lower maintenance. The absence of prolonged charging cycle and the maintenance free nature
of the battery, frees the electrical crew to focus on other maintenance activities. Currently a lot
of efforts are put by the Electrical department in carrying out the maintenance which include
daily inspection of the battery pit, topping up, Battery pit washing and cell measurements. This
battery system also puts lesser long term health issues on the personnel dealing with the
battery maintenance compared to the lead acid battery maintenance.

238
(f) High Input/Output. SCiB™ can be charged and discharged at high current rate. Therefore, SCiB™
can accept a large amount of regenerative energy in a short time as produced by a train or an
automobile when the brake is being applied, and supply a large current to the motor during
vehicle start-up/acceleration14.
(g) Wide effective SOC Range14. SCiB™ exhibits excellent input/output characteristics over a wide
SOC* range of 0-100%. This makes it possible to reduce the nominal battery capacity or amount
of batteries necessary for a system.
15
(h) Low Temperatrure performance . SCiB™ exhibits low degradation even when it is charged and
discharged at -30°C. Thus, SCiB™ can be used for applications that are exposed to low
temperatures, such as home battery storage systems and street lamps and high altitude remote
locations. This has special significance in cold water operations.
The summary of the performance characteristics are as shown below*:

* Under specified test conditions

Fig 3. Advantages of Lithium Titanate ScIBTM batteries16

6. Technical specifications of the basic SCiBTM Cell.

This cell forms the basic prismatic unit or the building block on which the larger power modules are
designed. The cells are arranged in series combinations with parallel strings to achieve the desired
voltage and current ratings to obtain power output for a particular application. The small size
enables the cell to minimize the energy losses due to the ion travel. The cell is encapsulated in a
metallic shell that provides robust protection against shock, deformation or damage due to ballistic
projectiles. The figure 4 provides the technical specifications of the basic cell unit which is a 2.3 V 20
Ah battery.

239
 Fig 4 Technical specifications of the basic cell17

The performance parameters of a 1.1 kW Battery Module made from 24 Basic cells for
Automobile Applications is as shown in Table 2:
18
Table 2: Performance parameters of 1.1 kW Battery Module

Sl No Parameter Value
(a) Cell configura on 2 parallel strings of 12 in series
(b) Nominal capacity 1.1 kWh
(c) Nominal voltage DC27.6 V
(d) Range of ba ery voltage DC18.0 to 32.4 V
(e) Maximum charge current condi ons 160 A 100 seconds (not exceeding a cell
temperature of 55 °C)
(f) Maximum discharge current 160 A 100 seconds (not exceeding a cell
temperature of 55 °C)
(g) Humidity 15 to 85%RH
(h) Cell configura on 2 parallel strings of Nominal capacity
12 in series
(j) Environment condi ons Ambient temperature -20 to 45°C
Range of ba ery voltage
DC18.0 to 32.4 V
Al tude Under 1000 m
(k) Weight About 14 kg
(l) Exterior Dimensions W187.2 × D358.5(419.3)* × H126.6 mm
* Figures inside ( ) include moving parts of
terminal cap
(m) CMU func on Cell voltage *( CMU=Cell Temperature monitoring, Cell balance opera on,
Monitoring Unit BMU=Ba ery Monitoring Unit CAN* between BMU* and CMU*
CAN=Controller Area Network)

240
The graphs at Fig 4, 5, 6,7,8,9 depict the following characteristics of a 1.1 kW Module respectively:
(a) Discharge characteristics (rate characteristics)
(b) Discharge characteristics (temperature characteristics)
(c) Float characteristics
(d) Cycle characteristics of 20Ah cell
(e) Storage characteristics (self discharge characteristics)

Fig 4. Discharge characteristics (rate characteristics)

Fig 5. Discharge characteristics (temperature characteristics)

241
 Fig 6. Charging characteristics

Fig 7. Float characteristics

Fig 8.Cycle characteristics of 20Ah cell

242
 Fig 9.Storage characteristics (self discharge characteristics)

7. Practical Implementation on board a submarine

3
The volume of Lithium titanate battery for the same power output is 95M after catering additional
25 % for cabling and ventilation. The small footprint of the individual battery module allows for
more packing within the given space since there is no requirement for a trolley or even an enclosure
where these batteries are kept. This enables of packing of at least 30% more Lithium titanate
batteries in the given volume, leading to an additional capacity of approx 2600 kWh thereby
rd
enhancing the submerged endurance by 1/3 .Since the dimension of the 1.1 kW module permits
even to pack the modules in the space earlier meant for the gratings, more capacity could be
derived from the same battery pit volume. Additionally these batteries could be mounted in the
machinery spaces, thereby further increasing the power available to the submarine. Since these
batteries weigh only nearly one third the weight of the existing lead acid batteries, weight
compensation also will not be a problem and can be easily overcome by placing some dead weights
inside the battery pit. Alternatively the 52 Ton weight gained by using the new batteries could be
used to store additional stores or fuel to extend the present range. The most important aspect of
such a load out is that the submerged endurance of the submarine is effectively doubled which
provides a near 100% increase in submerged range and much lower indiscretion rate. Since these
batteries are already proven to operate in megawatt scale range, scaling these modules as per the
user requirements is not an obstacle. The Figure 10 depicts the scales at which the power modules
could be utilized:

243
 Figure 10: The range and scalability of the Lithium titanate Batteries19

8. Power plant considerations.

(a) Existing Diesel generators.The current diesel generators are grossly inadequate to take the
advantage of the rapid charging capability of the Lithium titanate batteries. Even in such a
scenario, the two/three stage charging for partial charge that is being resorted at sea could be
done away to pump in more energy in unit time. This means the battery could be continuously
charged for 6 hours at 3600 Amperes to allow 100 % charge from 90% discharged battery. With
the Lithium Titanate battery, a single battery could be charged up to 21600 A in 6 hours or
alternately reach C1 capacity under 2 hours, since it can use constant current only mode of
charging.
(b) Using a Gas Turbine generator for Rapid charging Under 30 Minutes.The use of gas turbine
generators is a radical approach compared to the conventional approaches towards battery
charging. The following are the difficulties encountered while using a gas turbine generator.
(a) Very High Aspiration and exhaust rate.
(b) High specific fuel consumption.
(c) Possibility of surging and FOD.
(d) Requirement of specialized operators and maintainers.
However the benefit of having a reliable very high power to weight ratio gas turbine generator
provides an immense tactical advantage and redundancy. The high power to weight ratio of the
generator enables the submarine crew to rapidly charge the batteries under 30 minutes, to avoid
detection and increased submerged endurance. The modular acoustic enclosed GTs provides a
compact and maintenance free option. For the configuration envisaged, a 4.2 MW LM 500 marine
gas turbine generator was considered for implementation onboard. The following are the technical
specifications of the LM 500 diesel generators:

244
 Table 3: Details of LM 500 TG set

Sl No Parameter LM 500 TG set²⁰ Remarks

(a) Dimensions Base plate Width 2.36 M Addl .5 M
Base plate Length 7.14 M Addl 1.14M
Base plate Height 2.39 M
(b) Weight including the generator 27.3T
(c) Duct flow Area Inlet 1.12M²(600mm) Increased dimensions
Outlet 0.65 M²(455mm)
(d) Output 4.2MW
(e) Heat Rate 11.6KBtu/kWh
(f) SFC 269.5g/kWh
(g) Exhaust gas Flow 16.4 Kg/Sec
(h) Exhaust gas temperature 565?C
(j) RPM 7000
(k) Inlet Exhaust Losses at 0.1/0.15 M Higher losses to be catered for GT

Fig 11 LM 500 TG set21 mounted on a skid

245
It can be seen from table 5 that the LM 500 TG set outperforms the existing power plant in almost all
parameters except the Air intake and exhaust trunkings and the dimensional difference in Width
and Length. It has to be borne in mind that the TG unit is a complete unit in itself with minimum
accessories. The additional 1 meter in width requirement and 1.14 M in length requirement can be
utilised by moving the Sulzer compressor to the upper deck and extending the skid to the additional
2 metres available in length before the end of the bulkhead. Modification of the Trunking would
entail enlarging the dimensions of the inlet and exhaust trunkings by 150 mm. Alternately the TG
may be run at 80 % of its full power to obviate the requirement of modification of the Air induction
system. Two TG sets would be fitted in the available real estate or a single TG with a smaller 500 kW
emergency diesel generator could be used to manage the space constraints. In the proposed
configuration only one TG will be running at a time with the other being standby. Assuming 200 kW
losses for water column back pressure and air inlet constraints, the TG producing 4000kW would
produce about 15500A output after taking the conversion losses from AC to DC conversion. This
means the TG could charge the existing batteries under three hours or makes it possible to charge
the Lithium Titanate batteries under one hour.

9. Surge prevention
Preventing of surging especially during rough seas is an important aspect to be considered while
operation of the TG. A surge occurs when there is disruption of the airflow due to shutting of the
snort mast due to a wave splash. This momentary shutting could be managed by the full authority
digital control system. To overcome surge issues it is proposed to provide an additional air bottles
along with starting air bottles which could provide up to 15 kgs of air for 30 seconds. Shallow
planning also provides better protection against surging. Augmentation of Snort mast with a radar
transparent Teflon shroud of 30 cm also could be considered to minimise the water ingress.

10. Cost
Lithium titanate batteries are expensive compared to the conventional Lead acid batteries. To get
an approximate comparison a commercially available 12 V tubular Gel VRLA battery of 200 AH was
considered. To get the same power output, 5 Lithium Titanate cells of 2.3 V was connected in series
and two parallel strings to give the similar performance. It s to be taken into consideration that LTO
battery capacity is calculated at C1 rate compared to C10 rate by 12 V tubular Gel VRLA battery .
This in itself provides it a clear power density advantage. The cost comparison of both the batteries
is as follows:

Table 4: Comparison of Cost of VRLA ba ery and LTO ba eries.

Sl No Cell type Cost (Rs) Remarks
(a) 12 V tubular Gel VRLA ba ery of 200 AH15 22500/-
(b) 2.3V Lithium Titanate ba ery of 20 Ah (10 31500/- 29.6% expensive
Nos, 5 in series 2 strings in parallel)16

246
It can be seen that the LTO battery is 30% more expensive that a conventional Lead acid Gel type
VRLA battery. The LTO battery systems will be at least 60 % more expensive once we take the battery
monitoring system and the cell monitoring systems that comes along with it after offsetting the
need of separate battery monitoring systems in the new configuration. When considering the same
for a submarine application a ball park figure of Rs 35 crore (3150* 415*240) including the
accessories was reached for the same capacity as that of the EKM battery which costs only about
Rs15 crore. The cost of charging the battery weekly from shore facilities may also taken into
consideration while arriving at the TCO (total cost of ownership). Even discounting those factors
and neglecting the inflation rate, a minimum of 8 set of lead acid batteries are required to be
purchased and put over a period of twenty years whereas the LTO battery is a one time investment.
That provides a cost advantage factor of at least 3 over twenty years.

11.National Objectives
The nations struggle to achieve energy independence with the National solar Mission and
increasing the manufacturing base under Make in India are two important government initiatives
that can propel ahead our nation amongst other nations. Adopting LTO batteries as storage solution
for solar farms and household could drastically bring down the cost of LTO batteries. A maintenance
free nature and 20 year Lifespan of LTO battery marries well with the 20-25 year life span of solar
cells. Adoption of LTO in storage of energy can save the nation, need of replacing the lead acid
batteries every 6-7 years and the costs incurred along the loss of revenue during the replacement. If
the demand is in sufficient numbers, the nation could reach an agreement with the foreign LTO
manufacturers to setup production facilities in India, which would lead to further drop in cost of the
batteries. Such a move would be akin to reaping the fruits of benefit similar to the LED installation
revolution in the nation which saves power thereby indirectly avoiding the requirement of more
power plants for lighting requirements.

12.Diplomatic Initiatives
Japan and India share a lot of common interests as well as the challenge posed by its neighbouring
nations. The current government dispensation at both these countries share friendly relationship
and personal bonhomie at the leadership levels. A large number of Japanese investments are in the
pipeline for implementation including the High-speed bullet trains in which a lot of Japanese
companies including Toshiba are stake holders. These interests of the stake holders in Indian
economy could be leveraged to encourage LTO manufacturers to set up production facilities under
Make in India initiative along with suitable concessions. Additionally favourable financing
conditions could be obtained from Japanese banks companies to Japanese firms to set up facilities
overseas. Suitable Military Corporation along with the diplomatic initiatives could address these
concerns. India's proposal to buy Amphibious Aircraft from JMDSF (Japanese Maritime Self
Defence Forces) is a case in point.

247
13.Recommendations
The following are the recommendations towards implementation of the proposal.
(a) Set up an expert committee to study the proposal in detail.
(b) Procurement of the batteries and power plants from the OEM.
(c) Trials of the system and modifications that are required to be undertaken.

14.Conclusion
The LTO batteries provide significant tactical, cost and maintenance advantage over the
conventional batteries. These batteries coupled with a gas turbine generator provides significant
lower indiscretion rate. These batteries are proven, safe and used over numerous stationary and
mobile applications. Reduced maintenance leads to lesser crew fatigue and better performance.
The roll out of LTO technology in the national solar mission could provide the twin benefits of
energy independence and Make in India. Environmental impact of LTO batteries are much lesser
compared to the conventional batteries.

References:
1. Lithium Lithium Titanate Based Batteries for High Rate and High Cycle Life Applications Page 2.
Dr Mu Mu Moorthi VP Business Development NEI Corporation New Jersey
2. Lithium Lithium Titanate Based Batteries for High Rate and High Cycle Life Applications Page 2.
Dr Mu Mu Moorthi VP Business Development NEI Corporation New Jersey
3. http://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/types_of_lithium_ion.
4. http://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/types_of_lithium_ion
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium_Titanate_Battery
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium_Titanate_Battery
7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium_Titanate
8. http://www.scib.jp/en/download.htm 1412-BatterySystemComponents-en
9. http://www.scib.jp/en/download.htm 1412-BatterySystemComponents-en
10. http://www.scib.jp/en/download.htm 1412-BatterySystemComponents-en
11. http://www.scib.jp/en/download.htm 1412-BatterySystemComponents-en
12. http://www.scib.jp/en/download.htm 1412-BatterySystemComponents-en
13. http://www.scib.jp/en/download.htm 1412-BatterySystemComponents-en
14. http://www.scib.jp/en/download.htm 1412-BatterySystemComponents-en

248
15. http://www.scib.jp/en/download.htm 1412-BatterySystemComponents-en
16. http://www.scib.jp/en/download.htm 1412-BatterySystemComponents-en
17. http://www.scib.jp/en/download.htm SCiBBrochure2014Final
18. http://www.scib.jp/en/download.htm 1412-BatterySystemComponents-en
19. http://www.scib.jp/en/download.htm Battery_Energy_Storage_Solutions_with_SCiB
20. http://www. ge.com/marine/ datasheet-lm500.pdf
21. http://www. ge.com/marine/ datasheet-lm500.pdf

Additional References
1. Dolphin Journal
2. 24V-60Ah-BATTERY-MODULE-Data-Sheet Altaire Nano systems Nevada
3. Cycle Life of Commercial Lithium-Ion Batteries with Lithium Titanium Oxide Anodes in Electric
Vehicles ISSN 1996-1073 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies Xuebing Han, Minggao Ouyang *,
Languang Lu and Jianqiu Li.
4. http://www.altenergymag.com/tag/energy-storage.
5. 0??.689.027 ?? generator ??-142, complete with control check protection equipment.
Generator with equipment type ??-142. List of docs for medium refit.
6. Study on TCO and performance characteristics of various submarine batteries - Captain LR
Chandran

249
Author's Biodata
Cdr RS Ramesh (51501-Y) is the Alumnus of 88th Course of the National
Defence Academy and 79th Basic Engineering course. The Officer had
tenures in IN Submarines Sindhukirti, Sindhuratna, Sindhurakshak,
Sindhudhvaj , Sindhuvir and Chakra. He had also served onboard Coast
Guard ship Sankalp as Electrical Officer. The officer was awarded VK Jain
Gold medal for innovation in 2008. The officer is currently serving as
Manager Quality Control in Naval dockyard Visakhapatnam.

Cdr Ramesh Kumar Lakra (51502-Z) is an Alumnus of the 89th Course of the
National Defence Academy and 79th Basic Engineering Course. Officer was
the course topper of O-134 L specialization at INS Valsura. He had Served in
various appointments that include INS Ganga, Dunagiri, Vindhyagiri,
WATT(MB), DND(SDG), DFM, System Manager to the CNS. The officer is
currently the OIC Battery commissioning facility and is involved in
commissioning of the Exide and Hagen submarine batteries. His academic
interests include battery vehicles, unified theory correlating standard
model of quantum mechanics with large astrophysical spaces.

250
 article

21 NON-MAGNETIC PRESSURE HULL – FUTURE

CONCEPTS FOR SUBMARINE DESIGN

(Lt Cdr Vikram Singh)

Abstract- The submarine is a unique platform that is capable of dealing with conventional as well as
asymmetric threats from the littorals. As a stealthy platform that possesses a robust capability for
conventional open water anti-surface and antisubmarine warfare, a submarine is also increasingly
called upon to undertake intelligence gathering, counter terrorism and special force operations. The
need for stealth, range and flexibility while controlling the size and cost of the submarine has
resulted in innovative submarine designs. These innovations in the fields of propulsion, structure,
construction methodology and battery design are driving submarine design to a new dimension.
This paper presents concepts of magnetic stealth, submarine structural design aspects and
prospects of using of non-magnetic steel for submarine structural design.

1. Introduction
1.1 Stealth technology, also known as low observable technology (LOT), is a sub-discipline of
military tactics and passive electronic countermeasures, which covers a range of techniques
used not just for aircraft, but includes ships, submarines, missiles and satellite in order to make
them less visible (ideally invisible) to radar, infra-red and other detection methods. The
concept of stealth is to operate or hide without giving enemy forces any indications of the
presence.[1]
1.2 An important detection risk for ships and submarines at sea is the magnetic distortion they
create in the earth's own magnetic field. Ships and submarines can be thought of as large metal
objects which concentrate the earth's relatively weak magnetic field within them, creating
stronger distortions or magnetic anomalies which potentially have the ability to trigger the
release or detonation of magnetic mines. Warships are now able to reduce these magnetic
distortions to sufficiently low levels so that magnetically triggered mines cannot detect them.
This can be achieved by magnetising the ship's hull in the opposite direction to the earth's
magnetic field, cancelling out the effect. Reverse magnetisation is normally achieved using
hull-embedded electromagnets. However, it is sometimes considered preferable to reduce the
magnetic signature by constructing the ship's hull from nonmagnetic materials.
1.3 Presently, there is multi-year service experience with both GRP and stainless steel hulls for
mine countermeasure vessels. Sedriks in his article has [2] summarized that the performance
of the German mine countermeasure vessels indicates that the first German stainless steel
vessel has fulfilled all expectations after eight years of service. It also reveals that the
anticipated eddy current problem was easily managed by the vessel's degaussing system.
There were no changes in the nonmagnetic characteristics of the hull material during the eight
year service period.

251
1.4 The possibility of building warships with nonmagnetic advanced double hulls much larger than
mine countermeasure vessels has generated considerable interest in the performance of
austenitic stainless steels since the limited stiffness (lower modulus) of GRP has traditionally
restricted its use to ship hulls of 60 m or less in length.
1.5 Austenitic non-magnetic stainless steels being used for marine structures are AISI Type 316,
Nitronic 50 and AL 6XN. The German stainless steel 1.3964.9 was selected as the nonmagnetic
hull material for the Type 206/ 212 class of submarines and the mine countermeasure vessels
of the Frankenthal and Hameln classes.
1.6 In the Indian context, INS Kalvari was the first submarine to be commissioned into the Navy on
08 Dec 1967. Till very recent times our navy has been operating submarines procured from
foreign navies. Foxtrot class single hull submarines, Kilo class EKM double hull submarines and
SSK class attack submarines have been inducted and are still in the service. With the
upgradation of expertise in submarine construction, SSK, and Scorpene class submarines are
now being constructed in the Indian shipyards. However, there exists a great amount of self
sustenance in terms of material, equipment and operations, which needs to be attained by this
expanding navy.
1.7 Time has come for us to explore and experiment for newer materials which can provide non-
magnetic properties to the pressure hull of a submarine. This paper presents examples of
navies that have employed non magnetic steels for submarine construction and urges on the
need for development of indigenous materials which can fulfill the requirements.

2. Concept
2.1 For many years, it has been known that magnetite or lodestone if suspended by a thread will
come to rest in approximate north–south geographical direction This is an example of a natural
magnetic material used by both the Chinese and Scandinavian Vikings for navigation purposes.
It is also known that a piece of non-magnetic iron can be converted into a magnet by stroking it
in one direction repeatedly using an existing magnet. Certain materials like iron and steel can be
magnetised by moving them through the earth's magnetic field, whilst other common metallic
materials, such as copper or aluminium, cannot be magnetised.
2.2 The region of space influenced by a magnet can be visualised by considering the concept of the
magnetic field. For example, if a bar magnet is covered by a sheet of paper and iron filings then
sprinkled onto paper, the iron filings will reveal lines that can be traced from the magnet's North
Pole to its South Pole (Figure 1). These 'lines of force' or 'lines of flux' show clearly the direction
of the magnetic force at that point. Several key findings can be made about these lines of flux as
follows:-
(a) Lines of flux never cross.
(b) Lines of flux are always continuous.
(c) Lines of flux will always take the shortest possible path.
(d) Lines of flux which are parallel and in the same directions repel each other, for example,
when two magnets are brought together with north poles adjacent.

252
 Figure 1 - Magnetic field of bar magnet [1]

2.3 Quantitatively, if a unit area at right angles to the lines of flux is considered, practical numerical
definitions and terms can be elaborated. Lines of flux collectively can be said to constitute a
magnetic flux, Φ which passes through the area. 'Flux density' is the value of the magnetic field
at any point, and is obtained from the following expression:-

Flux density = Flux

Area

Figure 2 –Spreading lines of flux exiting a magnet [1]

253
2.4 Figure 2, illustrates the lines of flux exiting a magnet and passing through an area of 1 m2 at 90°
to the magnetic flux. The symbol for flux density is B and its unit is the tesla. The following
expression links flux, measured in weber, with the flux density, measured in tesla.
Flux = flux density × area or Φ (Wb) = B (T) × A (m2)
2.5 In magnetic materials, a magnetizing force (H) will produce a flux density (B), the magnitude of
which depends upon the type of material in the magnetic circuit (e.g. air, steel, soft iron etc.). In
free space, for most non-magnetic materials, the ratio between H and B is a constant value,
such that the ratio B/H for free space is as follows:-
μ0 = 4π × 10−7 H m−1
2.6 For any material, the ratio of flux density to magnetizing force is called the 'absolute
permeability' (μ) and is also measured in Henry per metre (H m−1). Thus,
μ= B
H
2.7 However, the 'relative permeability' μR is the ratio of the flux density produced in a magnetic
material to the flux density which would be produced in air by the same force, that is,
Relative permeability = Absolute Permeability
Permeability of free space
μR = μ
μ0
or
μ = μ0μR
2.8 The result of this is that the permeability differences in magnetic materials will tend to
concentrate any magnetic field lines present such that these field lines might be described as
'preferring' to stay and be drawn into the magnetic media rather than in any non-magnetic
media. This is not so dissimilar to the way in which light 'prefers' to travel within a high-
refractive index media such as glass rather than propagate or travel in a low-refractive index
media such as air when it is incident above the critical angle. This concentrating of the
magnetic field lines can be described as a magnetic 'lens' whose concentrating ability is
determined by the relative permeability of the material in question. For example, for some
materials such as iron, nickel and cobalt, this value can be extremely large (ranging between
1,000 and 2,000). For some special materials, the value of the relative permeability can be even
higher. Two specialist materials 'nanoperm' (a cobalt-based magnetic alloy 2714 A) and
'metglas' have relative permeability values of 80,000 and 1,000,000 respectively. Interestingly,
pure metals such as nickel, cobalt and magnesium exhibit very slight magnetic properties, but
when alloyed with iron, very strong magnetic properties result. The consequence of this
concentration of magnetic field lines is seen in the relationship between moving conductors
and the generation of an electric field.

254
2.9 The earth can be considered as a relatively simple dipole magnetic with magnetic lines of
force running from north to south. Magnetic lines of forces at the earth's surface have two key
components, a vertical component (Z) and a horizontal component (H), which is itself divided
into two components: a longitudinal component along the ship and an athwartship
component across the beam of the ship. The medium through which the field lines pass, with
its specific permeability, affects the field strength (the lines of force per unit area). For
example, metal is more permeable than water. So the field intensity increases in the ship,
creating anomalies or localised concentrations in the magnetic field around it, as illustrated
with visualised lines of force in Figure 3.
2.10 In reality, the ship will have a composite permeability of differing metal components and
structures with a three-dimensional spatial distribution. A further complication is that all
ships are built within the earth's magnetic field, hence they become permanently
magnetised, at least partially. However, the level of permanent magnetisation depends on
the earth's field where the ship was built, its orientation when it was built and the materials
used.

Figure 3 – Magnetic field lines concentrated in the steel hull of the ship [1]

2.11 The induced magnetic field from the ship's magnetic materials when moving in the earth's
magnetic field will depend upon the earth's magnetic field strength and the ship's
orientation. The components are 'longitudinal' (affected by latitude, heading and pitch),
'athwartship' (affected by latitude, heading and roll) and 'vertical' (affected by latitude, pitch
and roll). One solution to this problem is the practical engineering technique of degaussing or,
its more modern version, deperming.
2.12 A ship made of ferromagnetic materials such as steel, which concentrate lines of magnetic
flux, will constrain them to follow a 'preferred' path to the water surface. Consequently the
local magnetic field of the earth, as stated, can become quite distorted. As the ship moves, it
will have a potential difference (p.d.) or voltage induced across its hull plates and

255
superstructure, with differing voltages over the entire ship due to the non-uniformities in its
original construction and/or subsequent modifications. Variations in current flowing inside
the ship will induce magnetic fields around it. This voltage or potential difference across the
ends of the conductor will cause a current to flow, which in turn produces an induced
magnetic field (Figure 4).

Figure 4 – Origin of induced voltage, V [1]

Figure 5 – Magnetic field around current-carrying wire [15]

256
2.13 A conductor which carries a current (I) has a decreasing radial magnetic field of flux density
(B) with increasing distance from the wire. Hence a current is applied which creates a
magnetic field in the opposite direction to that which has been induced by this motion (Figure
5).There is a simpler solution than having to remove the permanent and induced fields, and
that is to avoid the use of ferromagnetic materials in modern ship/ submarine construction
entirely.

3. Basics of Submarine Structural Design

3.1 Before designing any material for a structure, it is important to understand the philosophy
and methodology of structural design in detail. A brief introduction of typical structural
design of submarines is presented in this section. Conventional submarines are normally
designed with single or double hull structure. Single hulled submarines are the boats which
do not have any outer hull along her length. Ballast tanks for such types of submarines are
placed either at the ends or inside the pressure hull. A double hull submarine has an outer hull
enclosing the pressure hull along her length. The volume between the two hulls is used as
main ballast tanks. [3-8]

Figure 6 – Single hull construction submarine [14]

Figure 7 – Double hull construction submarine [14]

3.2 The following are the main parameters to be considered for structural design of a submarine:-
(a) Maximum diving depth and safety factor
(b) Pressure resisting volume
(c) Shape of hull
(d) Internal and external layout

257
 (e) Architecture
(f) Material
(g) Fabrication technology/code
(h) Design methodology/code
3.3 The following are the main loads which are to be considered for a submarine structural
design:-
(a) Maximum operating depth (pd)
(b) Occasional overshoots beyond pd due to accident or mal-operation, depending upon:-
(i) Nature of incident
(ii) Submarine length
(iii) Maximum speed
(iv) Control systems characteristics
(v) Emergency deballasting capability
(c) Reserve of strength to survive underwater attack when at pd (Δpr)
3.4 The entire submarine structure is divided into primary and secondary structure. For a
submarine, the following are the primary and secondary weight bearing structures:-
(a) Primary
(i) Pressure hull,
(ii) Main transverse bulkheads
(iii) Pressure hull penetrations
(b) Secondary
(i) Outer hull
(ii) Superstructure and appendages
(iii) Internal structures – decks, tanks, platforms, minor bulkheads
(iv) Foundations.
3.5 Typically primary and secondary structures amount to 43-45% of total weight. The challenge
of efficient design involves optimum utilisation of strength of material throughout the mass
of material while minimising the structural weight. Considering that the hydrostatic pressure
is the main design pressure, the spherical submarine hull form would be ideal. But this hull
form poses the difficulty of space utilisation, manufacturing and streamlining for the
designer.

258
3.6 The next most efficient hull form for submarines would be right circular cylinder with domed
ends. This hull configuration gives the designer geometric freedom to vary L/D ratio, has
better volumetric efficiency than sphere and is easier to manufacture due to single curvature.
However, this configuration is not so structurally efficient as it has 2:1 stress ratio between
circumferential and longitudinal directions. Also, this is not the ideal hydrodynamic shape as
a combination of cones & cylindrical sections used.
3.7 Other pressure hull shapes which can be used are:-
(a) Central circular cylinder with canted conical sections rising at either end
(b) Aft end as a flattened horizontal oval shape to suit twin shafts and fore end being a vertical
oval section for weapons
(c) Figure-of-8 cross-section.
3.8 The following are the typical modes of failure for a submarine:-
(a) Interframe shell yielding
(b) Interframe buckling
(c) Overall collapse
(d) Frame buckling and tripping
(e) Dome buckling
3.9 The minimum buckling pressure (pm) is estimated using the equation [8]:-

Where, t = shell thickness

R = mean radius of shell
L = unsupported length of shell

3.10 For the pressure hull design, the pressure hull is considered as a whole and each component
ensures that no component fails prematurely before rest of the structure. Design is
undertaken such that the material should reach its yield stress before failure. Also, the
pressure required for buckling should be greater than for yield failure. It is imperative for a
designer to account for imperfections in the geometry during the design stage itself. These
shape imperfections introduce bending stresses in addition to existing shell membrane
stresses in the frames. These shape imperfections can be Out-of-Circularity (OOC) shape
which maybe 6 mm on 4.5 m radius at a frame. Typically OOC can be 0.001 to 0.0025 times the
radius of pressure hull. The submarine structural design procedure has been elaborated in
detail in BS5500:1976. [9-13]

259
 Figure 8 – Modes of structural failures for submarine [8]

4. Materials for submarine hulls

4.1 Material selection for hulls is one of the most important tasks during the submarine design
stage. It is required to survey and ascertain the materials available for hull construction and
assess their suitability for design based on several factors including availability, reliability and
maintenance (ARM). Broadly the following design considerations are made for submarine
hull material selection:-
(a) High Strength to Density Ratio.
(b) High Yield Strength
(c) Modulus of Elasticity
(d) High Impact Strength/ Fracture Toughness
(e) Ductility
(f) Low Magnetic Properties (desirable)
(g) Good Weldability
(h) Corrosion Resistance
(j) Fatigue Strength
(k) Availability
(l) Cost

260
 Table 1 – A comparison of material properties [10]

Material sUTS(MPa) E (Gpa) r sUTS/r E/r

2
kg/m m/s (m/s)
Medium strength 370 200 7840 47x103 26x106
mild steel
High-strength mild 1550 200 7840 198x103 26x106
steel
3 6
Aluminium alloy 430 70 2800 154x10 25x10
Titanium alloy 690 120 4500 153x103 27x106
High-strength GFRP 1600 60 2000 800x103 30x106
3 6
CFRP 1400 170 1600 875x10 105x10

4.2 Most commonly used steel for submarine design is high strength alloy steel with yield
strength, σy = 500-700 MPa. The steel alloys are primarily chosen for construction due to their
high modulus of elasticity and it is possible to design on basis of yield rather than buckling
load. But, for very high yield strength, buckling stiffness may become a criterion. Different
types of steels used for submarine construction are High Yield 80 (HY80), AK 25 and 10XSND.
4.3 Newer construction materials like Aluminium, FRP have been considered and employed in
submarine hull construction with limitations. These materials have been used partially for
constructing upper casings, fins, masts and sonar domes of submarines. They primarily pose
limitation in exploitation as structural materials due to lower yield strengths and limitations in
fabrication.
4.4 Titanium alloys for pressure hull have been used only by Russia. This alloy is very expensive
and difficult to fabricate, but has very high strength to weight ratio (approximately 288).
Titanium alloys are used for making sonar domes in submarines due to their non-magnetic
properties.
4.5 While the submarines have become more silent and almost non-detectable with advanced
technological designs, hull material is an area which still can be explored for reducing the
magnetic signature and enhancing stealth. The use of non-magnetic variants of steel can be
used for pressure hull for minimizing the magnetic signatures. This philosophy has already
been employed in the Soviet minesweepers wherein, non magnetic U3 steel was used as the
hull material. This special type of steel used for minesweepers reduced their vulnerability to
magnetic mines, torpedoes and magnetic anomaly detection. However, the experience of
working on U3 steel has revealed the following concerns:-
(a) Welding process has preheating requirements.
(b) Reverse polarity is to be used for minimizing heat affected zone (HAZ).

261
 (c) Frequent cracking of the HAZ and weldment post hot work.
(d) Gas cutting using oxy-acetylene torch cannot be used.
4.6 In view of the above problems encountered during fabrication and repairs of U3 steel, serious
limitations exist in its use as material for pressure hull construction. Presently, U3 steel has
been employed in fabricating parts of outer hull of Russian submarines but not yet selected
for pressure hull of a submarine. Accordingly, a need for material exists which should have
adequate strength, good non-magnetic properties, corrosion resistance and ease of
fabrication and repairs. Considering these requirements, austenitic steels with non magnetic
properties and yield strength of 500-700 MPa seem a possible material option for pressure
hull of a submarine. After surveying the materials available for magnetic stealth design, AISI
Type 316, Nitronic 50, AL 6XN and the German stainless steel 1.3964.9 were found to meet
the criteria for building a submarine with non-magnetic pressure hull.

Table 2 – Austenitic stainless steel options for pressure hull construction [2]

4.7 In the basic form stainless steels have aferritic (α) grain structure, similar to carbon steel, and
are magnetic. The addition of nickel in the 300-series stainless steels modifies the crystal
grain structure to austenitic. The austenitic grades are mostly non-magnetic in the unworked
state due to their nickel content. When 300-series stainless steels are cold-worked, straining
of the atomic lattice structure in the areas of cold-working forms the magnetic grain structure
called martensite. [14]

262
4.8 Nickel and Manganese when alloyed to steel act as austenite stabilisers. Austenite is a
predominant phase at room temperature because of the addition of sufficiently large
amounts of Ni or Mn. In such state, alloy is called austenitic steel. For example, Hadfield steel
(13% Mn, 1.2% Cr, and 1% C) and (18% Cr and 8% Ni) austenitic stainless steel. The higher the
nickel content the more stable is the austenitic structure and less magnetic is the response
from cold-working. Consequently, 316 stainless steel with higher amount of nickel exhibits
virtually no magnetism after cold-working in most cases. While 304, with lower nickel
content, may become mildly magnetic. [15]

Figure 9 – German Navy's Type 206A submarines with 1.3964.9

nonmagnetic steel hull [2]
1600
1538°C
d-Fe

1500 1495°C
Liquid
1400 1394°C
Liquid + Cementite
1300
TEMPERATURE_CELSIUS

Liquid + Cementite
1200
115°C
Austenite (g-Fe)
1100
A3 2.08%
1000
Austenite + Cementite
900 912°C
0.68% Acm
800
a+g 738°C (A1)
700
Ferrite (a-Fe) Ferrite + Cementite
600
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
MASS_PERCENT C ©2006 calphad.com

Figure 10 – Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram [15]

263
 Figure 11 – Stabilisation of Austenitic phase by alloying [15]

4.9 For an austenitic stainless steel to be considered a candidate material for nonmagnetic ship or
submarine hull, it must maintain its nonmagnetic behavior even after deformation and
welding. Regarding deformation, it should be recognised that during fabrication the metal is
bent to the design contours of the ship/ submarine, which may require to be cold worked
from 1% to 3%. Also, a combatant vessel may be required to sustain rupture or high plastic
whipping loads.
4.10 Accordingly, hull materials should have a deformation-modified martensite start
temperature well below the ambient, as the introduction of body-centered cubic (BCC)
martensitic phases could change the magnetic permeability of the material. For the German
hull steel 1.3964.9, low magnetic permeability in the presence of high levels of deformation
has been demonstrated by extensive testing. Comparable testing of 6XN, Nitronic 50, and
Type 316 remains to be carried out. Regarding welding, since 6XN is conventionally welded
with nonmagnetic nickel-based alloy electrodes such as Alloy 625, Alloy C-276, and Alloy C-
22, the welds are expected to be fully nonmagnetic.[2]
4.11 The conventional method of welding austenitic stainless steels such as Type 316 and Nitronic
50 involves producing a final weld microstructure that is a mixture of the nonmagnetic
austenite and the magnetic delta ferrite formed at high temperatures. The presence of delta
ferrite significantly reduces the susceptibility of the weld to hot cracking/tearing. The
optimum delta ferrite content for inhibition of hot cracking is 3% to 8%, and this level of
magnetic delta ferrite produces a magnetic permeability that is not acceptable for mine
countermeasure vessels. However, it has been possible to identify weld filler compositions
that maintain substantial delta ferrite levels just prior to solidification and then convert to the
nonmagnetic austenite phase upon final solidification.
4.12 With these fillers, resistance to hot cracking/ tearing is retained, and the final weldment is
nonmagnetic. Studies in Australia and Japan have shown that filler composition ranges that
exhibit this behavior include the German filler 1.3954.0 (22.0% Cr, 17.5% Ni, 7.5% Mn, 3.5%
Mo, 0.7% Si, 0.025% C, 0.2% N, and balance Fe), used for welding the hull steel 1.3964.9.
Analysis for crevice and pitting corrosion has also revealed satisfactory results.

264
4.13 The German Navy uses sacrificial anodes for cathodic protection in areas of the 1.3964.9
stainless steel hulls where additional protection against corrosion is needed. Such methods
of protection are a major source of electric currents flowing around the hull. These currents
are referred to as “underwater electric potentials” (UEP). At close range the UEP field can
activate some types of mines. The UEP field can also generate a related magnetic field which
decays more slowly and extends further than the electric field. This magnetic field has a
different origin than the magnetic field associated with the ferromagnetic content of hull and
machinery materials, and cannot be controlled by conventional degaussing-type treatments.
An additional electromagnetic field, called the “extremely low frequency electromagnetic”
(ELFE) field is derived from poorly filtered impressed current supply or a modulation of the
corrosion protection current flowing through the bearings in the shaft.
4.14 Other electromagnetic fields could arise from the galvanic currents which are generated if the
material used for the hull is different than that used for the shafts and propellers. Sedriks [2]
has brought out in his work, that no galvanic corrosion occurs when superaustenitic stainless
steels such as 6XN are galvanically coupled to titanium alloys or nickel-chromium-
molybdenum alloys such as Alloy 625 or Alloy C-276.19 Weld-overlay or spray formed
coatings of these materials would be expected to exhibit similar behaviour. Additional
investigations are warranted in this area.[16]
4.15 Type 316, which is cheaper than 6XN and Nitronic 50, is a common, commercially available
stainless steel that may be useful for fabricating non-wetted internal ship structures such as
internal decks and non-watertight bulkheads, which are a significant part of the total
structure. For welded construction, Type 316L should be used to eliminate risk of
intergranular corrosion, which can occur in the marine atmosphere. Also, possible use of Type
316L for the inner shell of the advanced double hull design cannot be ruled out.[2]

5. Conclusion
5.1 Avoiding detection at sea surfaced or submerged empowers a submarine tremendously and
augments the surprise element of warfare. While traditionally steel has been used as the
material for hull construction both for ships and submarines, recent developments have
focused on use of non conventional material. U3 steel, titanium, GRP are the examples of non
conventional ship building material used in the navy. Accordingly submarine construction
industry is looking for newer materials for pressure hull design to have better stealth
characteristics. While, research is on in the US, German Navy has commissioned Type 206A
and 212 non-magnetic hull submarines into the service. Their performance in the service has
been reported to be highly satisfactory. This has forced submarine designers to seriously
consider the option of innovation in pressure hull design and look for newer material. In the
Indian naval context, we are still in budding stages of submarine construction and have our
own share of difficulty. However, in order to succeed as a potent blue water navy, we need our
defense laboratories to explore newer options of material design and ascertain the suitability
of the material in the following regards:-
(a) Magnetic permeability
(b) High strength to density ratio.

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 (c) High yield strength
(d) Modulus of elasticity
(e) High impact strength/ fracture toughness
(f) Ductility
(g) Good weldability
(h) Corrosion resistance with specific impetus to crevice and pitting corrosion.
(j) Fatigue strength
(k) Fabrication methodology
5.2 The experience of operating U3 steel minesweepers will be very useful in guiding the way
ahead for designing a non magnetic material suitable for construction of pressure hull of a
submarine. A dived submarine with no or least magnetic signature will surely be a lethal
weapon against any enemy.

References
[1] Christopher Lavers, (2012), Reeds Marine Engineering and Technology, Stealth Warship
Technology
[2] Sedriks, A. J., &Dudt, P. J. (2001). Corrosion Resistance, Coating, and Magnetic Property Issues
of Nonmagnetic Austenitic Stainless Steels for Ship Hulls, (January), 84–91.
[3] Memorandum, T. (2007). Structural Analysis and Design of Pressure Hulls : the State of the Art
and Future Trends, (October).
[4] Special Steels, Superalloys, Aluminum and Titanium for the Naval and Marine Industries.
(n.d.).
[5] Materials, A. D., Structures, S., Iv, R., Mikihito, H., & You-chul, K. I. M. (2009). Strength of High
Manganese Non-magnetic Steel / Carbon Steel, 38(1), 69–74.
[6] International, A. S. M., Steels, S., & Engineers, D. (2008). Austenitic Stainless Steels.
[7] Germanischer Lloyd Classification Society (2003). Rules for Classification and Construction
Materials and Welding.
[8] Bertram, V. (n.d.). Submarine Hull Design (2000), 1–27, Oxford Publications.
[9] Joubert, P. P. N. (1920). Some Aspects of Submarine Design Part 2 .Shape of a Submarine
2026.
[10] Joubert, P. P. N. (n.d.). Some Aspects of Submarine Design Part 1 .Hydrodynamics.
[11] Curtin, T. B., Crimmins, D. M., & Roper, C. (2005). Autonomous Underwater Vehicles 39(3),
65–75.
[12] Buckingham, J., Mimeche, C., Hardy, T., & Mimarest, C. (2008). Submarine Power and
Propulsion - Trends and Opportunities, (January), 1–11.
[13] Ulrich Gabler, Submarine Design, Casemate UK Ltd (2011).
[14] Yuri Kormelitsin, Oleg Khalizev (2002) Theory of Submarine Design.
[15] W D Callister, (Wiley, 2007), Materials Science and Engineering.
[16] Thomas, D. (2008). Submarine Developments : Air-Independent Propulsion, 3(4).

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Author's Biodata

Lt Cdr Vikram Singh, 42872-K, The author completed his B. Tech in Naval Architecture and Ship
Building in year 2008 at Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kochi. The author has served
at Naval Dockyard, Mumbai and onboard INS Deepak as Naval Architect Officer. Thereafter the
guide has persued his Masters from IIT Bombay in Corrosion Science and Engineering and is
presently serving as instructor at Indian Naval Academy.

267
 article

22 DEFENCE RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT AND

PRODUCTION NEED TO REDESIGN AND REALIGN

(Lt Cdr Vikram Singh)

“According to McKinsey Global Institute (MGI) analysis, as global economic growth slows down in
future (as is projected), supply of capital will fall short of demand by 2030. This is especially
important for economies with limited Research and Development (R&D) infrastructures as they
could become even more restricted in building a foundation for R&D in future than they are now”.1

Introduction
1. Defence Products for Indian Armed Forces. India is located centrally in the Indian Ocean, and
shares its border with seven countries. This strategic location exposes India to threats from sea
and land. However, the country has following challenges in ensuring defence preparedness:-
(a) Majorly dependent on imported defence equipment as also a very nascent domestic
manufacturing base. Approximately 70 per cent of defence equipment is imported, making
2
India world's largest importer.
(b) Obsolescence of defence equipment in India has been highlighted by the Service Chiefs at
various fora thus raising serious questions about India's war-preparedness.
(c) India has not kept pace with global standards due to limited success achieved through
efforts of DRDO, Defence Public Sector Undertaking (DPSU) and Ordinance Factories to
boost indigenous R&D.
(d) Low investment by Indian private sector in Defence R&D and manufacturing due to
challenges faced by them as follows:-
(i) Shortfall of investment in technology innovation and upgradation.
(ii) Complex policy environment coupled with bureaucratic delays in procurement.
(iii) Lack of tax incentives and monetary support for defence manufacturing which suffers
from lumpy investments, limited order size and a prolonged gestation period.
(iv) Lack of supporting infrastructure and robust supply chain including availability of raw
materials adhering to military specifications/standards.
2. The concerns of Indian Industry have been well articulated and understood over the past
decade or so. The revisions of Defence Procurement Procedures, Increase in FDI limit, revisions
in Offsets policies, encouraging participation of major Indian Industrial firms to partake etc. are
indicators that the Government is serious in its endeavour to develop the Indian Defence
manufacturing industry. The paper discusses the Indian Defence R&D so far, discusses two

268
 Global success models viz US and China with the aim to draw out our plausible recipe for
achieving success in Defence manufacturing under the ambit of 'Make in India'.

Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)

3. DRDO means Defence R&D in India. Defence manufacturing is an expensive business with
minimal incentives for private industry. Defence Research and Development Organisation
(DRDO) and Research and Development in Defence Manufacturing have remained
synonymous since 1958. The defence industry in India has been largely state controlled.
DRDO comprises 46 scientific laboratories and six establishments3 and maintains a strong
partnership with about 40 premier academic institutions, 15 national Science and
Technology (S&T) agencies, 50 Public Sector Units [PSU's, including nine Defence PSU's
4
(DPSU's)], 39 Ordnance Factories (OF's) and 1000 plus private sector industries. The
investment in R&D by the Indian Defence Industrial Base (DIB), i.e. by the DRDO, DPSU's, OF's,
private sector and armed forces, in absolute terms, is relatively insignificant by world
standards. The best performing Indian defence industries thus far have been Hindustan
Aeronautics Limited (HAL), OF's put together under the Ordnance Factory Board (OFB) and
5
Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) of which, BEL invests just around 6-8% of its annual turnover
6
in R&D.
4. DRDO Approach. On successful development of lab prototype system, trial evaluation and
acceptance by the armed forces, technology is transferred to Production Agency (PA) i.e.
Indian industrial entities to manufacture the product for meeting requirements of armed
forces. While transferring technology to Indian industrial entities, DRDO provides relevant
7
'know-how's & 'know-whys' to enable industries to add value.
5. Shortfalls in Defence Products Development.Despite combined successes in high end
technology areas by DRDO-DPSU/OF/Private Industry, R&D ecosystem in India and DRDO in
particular has faced criticism for numerous reasons starting from projecting unrealistic cost
8
and time estimates for indigenous projects , delays in completion of ongoing projects leading
9
to steep escalation in cost and compelling Forces to import expensive foreign equipment , not
meeting qualitative requirements as specified by Services, unduly long developmental times,
greater focus on technology demonstrator projects to gain publicity, inadequate experience
of developing tactical military systems and so on. A detailed study was undertaken by
Standing Committee on defence and the report was tabled in the Parliament on December
22, 2014 highlighting areas of concerns as short falls in budget affecting technology
development, state of S&T and development of infrastructure and facilities related to
projects, no enhancement of scientific manpower in DRDO since 2001 albeit multi-fold
increase in number of projects, difficulties in talent retention view increased
opportunities/incentives available in other organisations/industries, time and cost overruns
in projects, content of research programmes sponsored through universities, budgetary
provision and actual allocation of funds to Universities, their system of monitoring etc.10

269
6. DRDO Rationale for Limited Success. DRDO has attributed the cost and time overruns issue
to a host of factors such as ab-initio development of state of art technologies, inadequate
trained/skilled manpower for ab-initio development projects, non-availability of required
infrastructure or test facilities, technical / technological complexities of system design
leading to major mid-course redesigning, non-availability of critical components / equipment
/ materials and denial of technologies / sanctions by technologically advanced countries.
Certain other cited reasons include enhanced user's requirements, changes in specifications
during development, increase in scope of work, extended and long-drawn user trials, failure
of some components during testing and trials and in certain cases original PDC not being
pragmatic due to under-assessment of developmental effort owing to a lack of experience
etc.10.
7. CAG Observations on DRDO's capabilities. In 2011, the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG)
put a serious question mark on DRDO's capabilities. To cite the CAG observations "the
organisation, which has a history of its projects suffering endemic time and cost overruns,
needs to sanction projects and decide on a probable date of completion on the basis of a
conservative assessment of technology available and a realistic costing system…"11. The CAG
also observed that nearly 60 percent of DRDO produced products were rejected by the armed
forces, while crucial projects were delayed for decades. A few notable delays of DRDO projects
are:-
(a) Arjun Main Battle Tank
(b) Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) Tejas
(c) Nag anti-tank missile
(d) Trishul anti-aircraft missile
(e) Kaveri engine for the LCA
(f) Nishant UAV

Global R&D Investments at a Glance

8. Investments in R&D. The global R&D investments made by nations are closely linked to their
economies or Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and are expressed in Gross Expenditure on R&D
(GERD). In 2014, global R&D funding had brought out United States (US) with a GDP of 16,616
billion US $ as the world's largest R&D spender recording a GERD of USD 465 billion (Table I)12.
This R&D investment was 2.8% of US GDP and accounts for 31.1% of global R&D spending of
USD 1618 billion. The world's top 10 R&D investors are tabulated below. US, China and Japan
invest beyond USD 100 billion, Germany, South Korea and France between USD 50 to 100
billion and UK, India, Russia and Brazil between USD 30 to 50 billion. Further, India's
expenditure on R&D as a percentage of GDP is a meagre 0.9% which is the least out of the top
10 spenders while, the Asian economies of China and South Korea spend more than 2%.

270
 Table I, Gross Expenditure on R&D

Sr Country GDP PPP R&D as % GERD PPP % Global

bn US $ GDP bn US $ R&D Spending
(a) US 16,616 2.8 465 31.1
(b) China 14,559 2.0 284 17.5
(c) Japan 4,856 3.4 165 10.2
(d) Germany 3,312 2.9 92 5.7
(e) S Korea 1,748 3.6 63 3.9
(f) France 2,319 2.3 52 3.2
(g) UK 2,454 1.8 44 2.7
(h) India 5,194 0.9 44 2.7
(i) Russia 2,671 1.5 40 2.5
(j) Brazil 2,515 1.3 33 2.0
Global Spending 88,733 1.8 1,618 100.0

Source: Adapted by the author from Battelle, R&D Magazine, IMF Fact Book, December 2013

9. Collaborations with technology firms and research organisations in US and Europe are
increasing as Asian economies are seeking to leverage global scientific knowledge and
capabilities. Major infrastructure investments continue to be made, often with goal of
creating an innovation ecosystem, with mechanisms for technology commercialisation and
industry engagement, leading to amplified economic returns from research investment13.
Developing countries like Brazil, China and India, which are striving for R&D based growth,
need to build their talent and capabilities, identify technology markets and have the will to
invest. India being the world's fourth-fastest growing economy, has developed substantial
academic infrastructure, a large population dividend and enhanced its global connectivity14.
Yet, the social and political compulsions have kept the investment away from R&D.
10. Global Lessons.The models adopted for R&D by the top two spenders in R&D have been
discussed in the succeeding paragraphs with a view to derive the best practices for the Indian
context.

Research and Development in US

11. The United States have consistently committed 2.5-3.0% of their GDP towards R&D with
participation of both public and private research. In the U.S., the government seeds
innovation with investment in basic research and provides tax and policy incentives.
However, technologies to invest in for immediate future are determined by the markets. The

271
 sources for R&D in order of investment and performance in the US are:-
(a) Industry
(b) Academia
(c) Federal government
15
(d) Non-profit organisations .
12. The US Department of Defence's (DOD's) Research Development Test and Evaluation
(RDT&E) programme supports development of future military hardware and knowledge and
technological base which helps build defence products. RDT&E programme budget of approx
USD 66-73 billion (doubled since 1990) constitutes 53% of federal government's R&D
16
budget . Over 80% of RDT&E budget goes to develop or demonstrate specific military
17
systems and components called Weapon Development Activities (WDA's) . Balance 20% is
for primary R&D in sciences and technologies which are identified as vital for developing
improved military capabilities and operations. DOD's Defence Technical Information Center
(DTIC) serves the DOD community as the largest central resource for DOD and government
funded scientific, technical, engineering, and business related information. With a broad
footprint, DTIC allows the DOD to reduce duplication and build on previous research,
development, and operational experience. DOD's basic research programme (almost 60%) is
for universities while 25% is for DOD's own R&D facilities.
13. Federally Funded R&D Centres (FFRDC's) funded by the US government to address research
and development, engineering, and analytic needs that cannot be met as effectively by
existing government or other contractor resources. FFRDC's, of which some are operated by
industrial firms, research institutes (non-profit) or universities are governed by a sponsoring
agreement with operational restrictions and must follow as befitting their special
relationship with the government, including operating in public interest with objectivity and
independence, being free from real or perceived organisational and personal conflicts of
interests, and having full disclosure of its affairs to its primary sponsor. FFRDC's are
intentionally located outside the government to provide a long-term strategic relationship
and management flexibility to attract and retain high-quality scientists and engineers.
14. US R&D mechanisms evolved between 1970 to 1990 and DOD's introduced the Dual-Use
Applications Programme (DUAP) meant to stimulate the Services into pursuing dual use
programmes. DARPA was given the lead in initiating these kinds of programs.
15. DARPA Success. DARPA is a non-hierarchical organisation with primary role to oversee
creative research in short programmes typically for four to six years. It does not have any of its
own R&D labs. It identifies talent and ideas from the industry, academia, government
laboratories and individuals and awards R&D contracts. DARPA has six technology
programme offices with about 140 programme managers and a small support staff: a
workforce of around 250 personnel. DARPA's overall objectives are to "demonstrate
breakthrough capabilities for national security" and "catalyse a differentiated and highly
capable U.S. technology base. For this, DARPA solicits and reviews proposals with the military

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 services and awards grants for basic and applied research with the most innovative potential.
DARPA serves as a catalyst for developing disruptive capabilities, with support from the upper
echelon of defence acquisition community. DARPA has been successful in several radical
innovations including in the areas of stealth, internet, Global Positioning System (GPS) and
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV).

Research and Development in China

16. China by increasing its R&D investments between 12% to 20% annually from 1990's reached
USD 284 billion investment in 2014. China through sustained R&D intensity would surpass the
18
US by about 2022 . To become an innovation-based economy by 2020, China has accelerated
its research conversion into development demonstrated by investment in both civil and
military hardware. Also, China's significant advanced R&D is pursued in collaboration with the
U.S and European research organisations respectively.
17. Military R&D. China's allocation on military RDT&E is estimated to be more than 6% of its
total defence budget19. Also, the RDT&E policy directive mandates state-run defence
enterprises to spend at least 3% of annual revenues on R&D by 2020. Further, several
agencies and government departments invest in R&D as Civil Military Integration (CMI) policy
encourages dual sector integration. In addition, there are inflows from China's promotion of
foreign investments in non-defence R&D sectors. Since late 1990s, Chinese defence R&D
apparatus has undergone a revamp and grown to conduct high quality work. The key goals of
the reforms include enhancing basic research capabilities, diversifying the managements
funding from state to corporate sector, bringing defence R&D system closer to national
innovation system, and maintaining close linkages with universities and civilian research
20
institutes . Much of China's defence technological development over last two decades is
attributed to import and absorption of technologies and knowledge from abroad, especially
from Russia. China regularly produces near-replicas of foreign weapons systems based on
Russian, Ukrainian, French, Israeli or U.S. designs but aspires to be more indigenously
innovative. Efforts have been made to corporatize R&D institutes by allowing major defence
conglomerates to take them over. In the Chinese defence innovation system, imitation
(where there is no research constituent), is primary focus of actions, besides effort to
promote innovation, leadership and management are both top-down in nature. The Chinese
Government and military organisations that manage defence science, technology, and
industry are as follows:-
(a) State Administration for Science, Technology and Industry for National Defence
(SASTIND)
(b) General Armament Department (GAD) of the PLA
(c) Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (MIIT) with Civil-Military Integration
21
Promotion Department (CMIPD) .

273
18. SASTIND and CMIPD are both key regulatory agencies in the new State Council. SASTIND
issues defence industry regulations and inspects their implementation, directly allocates
research funds through programmes such as the Defence basic research programme, and
determines, with GAD, which enterprise may and may not engage in weapons and equipment
research and production. CMIPD is to develop an integrated system of standards for both
military and civilian products. New GAD and SASTIND regulations for licensing weapons and
equipment producers have opened up defence contracts to civilian enterprises, enabling
private companies to provide R&D services directly to the military. Notwithstanding, China's
DIB is now increasingly becoming decentralised, with enhanced scope for local State-Owned
Enterprises (SOEs) and privately owned enterprises to contribute to R&D and production.
However, the responsibilities for R&D, testing, procurement, production and maintenance
are with different units thereby leading to major gaps in information sharing.

Indian Context
19. Indian dependence on foreign manufactures for defence equipment has been an area of
concern since the 1990s. Notwithstanding, limited success has been achieved in the past and
it is likely that our commitment to invest in R&D remains under 1% of the GDP. The first step is
to understand the environment in which our Military R&D has progressed. A like to like
comparison with DARPA (though both organisations are different in their role) has been
drawn up to derive a new Object Oriented Approach w.r.t the Indian context.
20. DRDO Vs DARPA. DRDO is the premier research organisation for India and DARPA the lead
organisation for innovation in the US. While DARPA and DRDO were established around the
same time (in 1958), DARPA has moved far ahead and established global benchmarks in
defence R&D while DRDO is burdened with increased bureaucracy, endemic cost and time
overruns, high expenditure on defence R&D, low risk taking appetite and virtually no
accountability to the Services. A comparative between the organisations is as follows:-22
(a) DRDO annual budget is approx Rs 10,000 Crs (USD 1.8 billion) and DARPA has a budget of
USD 2.8 billion.
(b) DRDO comprises of approx 7,000 scientists and 25,000 technical staff /support personnel
and DARPA has approx 240 personnel (includes 140 technical staff).
(c) DRDO has dedicated state-of-the-art laboratory infrastructure comprising 52 Labs and
DARPA operates from academia, corporate and government laboratories (operated by
industrial firms).
(d) DARPA has field stations (DARPA Forward Cells in Combat Commands) in Afghanistan and
Iraq, where they field emerging technologies and get direct feedback from forward
troops and Combat Commands on the military application of these. The approach instills
user confidence in equipment delivered by DARPA apart from being involved in future
technologies. DRDO is yet to provide cutting edge technologies for field applications.

274
 (e) DARPA participates actively in the conduct of field trials.
(f) DARPA projects typically last three to five years while some DRDO projects are spanning
over two to three decades and finally lead to foreclosure.
21. Creation of DARPA like Organisation for India.T he Kelkar Committee had proposed
measures for greater self-reliance in defence production, benefits in terms of R&D,
technology spinoffs, higher industrial growth and exports, increase the competition and
provide more employment opportunities as well as cost savings. The impact analysis of
recommendations of the Kelkar Committee conducted by a parliamentary committee
concluded that implementation of measures outlined would result in a high degree of
indigenous production and defence preparedness. The initial approach involved constitution
of a multidisciplinary Task Force which was to prepare the proposal and indicate fund
requirement, modalities of functioning, etc. The Task Force was to evolve a model for
consideration of the government. However, this was not progressed and an approach paper
on the proposed Agency for Defence Science & Technology Advancement and Research
(ADSTAR), modelled on the lines of DARPA, was proposed.
22. The Rama Rao Committee had recommended replacement of present grants-in-aid
programme of DRDO. The committee recommended forming a Board of Research in
Advanced Defence Science (BRADS) on the lines of Defence Advanced Research Projects
Agency (DARPA). It was recommended that BRADS should endeavour to access and utilise
outstanding human resources available in non-defence laboratories and universities. BRADS
should also encourage SMEs to undertake radically innovative research through the Small
Business Innovation Research (SBIR) programme.
23. Lessons from Chinese Approach. The Chinese being a communist country have State
controlled Defence R&D and have so far focused on low end technologies and reverse
engineering / imitation. However, being a democratic country India has been marginally
successful through the State Model approach and therefore, the Chinese investment in R&D
should be the only take away for self reliance in Defence. From the Indian perspective, the
Collaborations with US and Europe defence manufacturing firms may be better executed
through Indian Private Firms wherein bottom lines would govern imbibing technology for
future. Also, several agencies and departments in China invest in R&D as the CMI policy
encourages dual sector integration and in areas of industry connect. On the other hand India,
in the last few decades albeit it's lowest R&D to GDP ratios, has invested 55% of the GERD in
23
strategic sectors of defence (DRDO), atomic energy (DAE), and space (ISRO) and therefore
has had a weak connect with the industry.

Conclusion
24. DRDO to follow the DARPA model has been discussed at the highest fora and finds favour with
the Apex bodies within the country. Whilst the recommendations of various committee's
aims to establish a DARPA equivalent for India, merely re-structuring of DRDO/CSIR/ISRO will

275
 defeat its intended purpose. Therefore, we need to form a separate organisation which
should be tasked to perform the DARPA function (identical to the US model) and transfer the
DRDO labs to Indian Industries in a phased manner. India needs to provide the DARPA
environment (unlike the existing DRDO safe and bureaucratic model) and provide enormous
freedom to the New Indian DARPA to award R&D contracts to any agency without having to go
through protracted bureaucratic approval processes. It must also be known that 85-90% of
24
DARPA's projects fail to meet their full objectives and is well understood and accepted by US
government. India needs to be ready through its policies for this very high percentage of
failure.
25. DRDO has in the past has acted independently and on most occasions missed the
requirements of Users/ Production Agencies (Pas). The state controlled PAs viz DPSU's and
OF's have proved inefficient and unproductive in the past and have still been shielded and
sheltered. Present day Indian private industry is more enthusiastic about entering the
defence sector than ever and are Collaborating both with Foreign OEMs as well as Indian
Academia through IITs, IISc, NIITs etc. The armed forces have at the moment limited
confidence in DRDO's capabilities. Thus, the has time come when India, like US and China,
also needs to initiate serious and meaningful reforms in its research and development, design
and engineering and manufacturing and production segments of the defence sector. Merely
forming synergistic committees and retaining archaic review mechanisms would defeat the
long term objectives of 'Self Reliance'. Defence Business has proved a lucrative business for
the developed countries and therefore the same should hold for the Indian context as well.

Recommendations
26. The Services provide the Long Term Integrated Perspective Plan (LTIPP) to the DRDO, which
outlines the broad requirements of the Services. DRDO prepares a document on Long Term
Technology Perspective Plan (LTTPP) derived from the LTIPP, which highlights the expected
new technology developments in various areas. However, in these the milestones and
budgets allocated for developing all the identified technologies by the Services and the DRDO
and contribution of Indian industry are not mapped as done in the US system. Therefore, R&D
ownership from the private sector has not been forthcoming. Further, the environment to
ensure seamless technological information between the military R&D stakeholders i.e.
developers, policy-makers and users (armed forces) can only be achieved if no turfs are drawn
and all are equal partners in the national technology development process. The
recommendations that emerge for ensuring a self-reliant defence industry are as follows:-
(a) India needs to increase its investment towards R&D from the present 0.9% of GDP to
atleast 2.5% of GDP and sustain the commitment for 10-15 years.
(b) Indian Industry needs to be the major contributor for R&D and this can only be ensured
through hand-holding by Government. Like the US, Indian Industry must contribute 70-

276
 75% of the R&D and Government should reduce its stake to 15% or so and the rest could
be from Academia.
(c) Economies of Scale can be ensured through investing in technologies with Dual
application (Civil and Military) and should have a Global market. Whilst ISRO and DAE
have contributed to space and atomic energy, their niche nature and requirement to
closely guard their technologies defeats industries opportunity for economic growth and
therefore India must spend at least 60-70% of its R&D investments in areas with industry
connect.
(d) Roadmap for Basic Research, Advanced Research and Applied Research should be
comprehensively drawn up to derive industrial applicability of this research work for civil-
military applications. For this, national goals in certain fields needs to be identified and
the requisite funds allocated to support the various types of research with priority to
applied research. The applied research needs to be steered by Indian industry partners
(50-60%) and the balance may be undertaken by DRDO (with increased participation
from the Indian Private Firms). The existing role of DRDO partnering with DPSUs/OF's
therefore needs a revisit.
(e) Developmental Plans should be drawn up with four – six year horizons with 'performance
based budgeting'. The project reports must bring out anticipated areas where challenges
are likely as well as their mitigation strategy. The Projects with DRDO must be audited by
and independent body for their progress and performance. Also, this body should be
rated for its precision in assessment. The higher rated organisations (could be private)
would graduate to evaluation of higher value projects (in a phased manner).
(f) Creation of a central repository of technological requirements, projects, research and
personnel database etc. must be available for utilisation by the conceived Indian DARPA.

REFERENCES
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"2014 R&D Magazine Global Funding Forecast" December 2013 p.19 available at
http://www.battelle.org/docs/tpp/2014_global_rd_funding_forecast.pdf (Accessed February
27, 2015).
2
'SIPRI Yearbook 2015 - Armaments, Disarmament and International Security', Stockholm
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"Government of India MOD Annual Report 2013-14" p. 83 available at
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Mohanty, Deba R, "A Dismal Show amid Pockets of Excellence: The State of Defense Innovation in
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5
The Ranking of HAL, OFs and BEL are 42nd, 54th and 82nd, respectively. See Stockholm
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"Government of India MOD Annual Report 2013-14" p. 67 available at http://
mod.nic.in/writereaddata/Annual Report 2013-14-ENG.pdf (Accessed February 02, 2015).
7
"Compendium of Industrial Partners of DRDO titled DRDO-Industry Partnership- Synergy
&Growth" p.514 compiled by the DRDO and available at http://
www.drdo.gov.in/drdo/English/IITM/Industry_compendium.pdf (Accessed February 17, 2015)
8
Joseph Josy" Unprofessional HAL, DRDO slammed for lost decades" The Times of India December
16, 2014 available at http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/ Unprofessional - HAL - DRDO -
slammed-for-lost-decades/article show/ 45529978.cms (Accessed February 21, 2015).
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Kumaraswami Sridhar "Can't build it? just import it" The Asian Age January19, 2015 available at
http://www.asianage.com/india/can-t-build-it-just-importit- 669 (Accessed February 22, 2015)
10
"Ministry of Defence Demands For Grants (2014-15) for Ordnance Factories and DRDO" pp.18-20
presented by the Standing Committee on Defence to the Lok Sabha on December 22, 2014 and
available at http://164.100.47.134/lsscommittee/ Defence/16_Defence_5.pdf (Accessed
February 23, 2015).
11
http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/drdo-failed-in-its-mission-due-to-delay-highcost/1/
184335.html
12
"2014 R&D Magazine Global Funding Forecast" December 2013 available at
http://www.battelle.org/docs/tpp/2014_global_rd_funding_forecast.pdf (Accessed Feb 25,
2015)
13
"2014 R&D Magazine Global Funding Forecast" December 2013 p.12 available at
http://www.battelle.org/docs/tpp/2014_global_rd_funding_forecast.pdf (Accessed Feb 25,
2015).
14
" T h e 2 0 F a s t e s t - G r o w i n g E c o n o m i e s T h i s Ye a r " a v a i l a b l e a t h t t p : / /
www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-02-25/the-20-fastest-growingeconomies- this-year
(Accessed February 25, 2015).
15
"2014 R&D Magazine Global Funding Forecast"December 2013 p.8 available at
http://www.battelle.org/docs/tpp/2014_global_rd_funding_forecast.pdf (Accessed March 02,
2015).
16
"Battelle and R&D Magazine,2013 Global R&D Funding Forecast" December 2012 p.10 available
a t h t t p : / / d a t a . w o r l d b a n k . o r g / i n d i c a t o r / G B . X P D . R S D V. G D . Z S /
countries?order=wbapi_data_value_2012%20wbapi_data_value%20wbapi_data_valuelast&
sort=asc&display=default.

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17
"IB10022: Defence Research: DOD's Research, Development, Test and Evaluation Program "p. 2
J o h n D. M o t e f f, Re s o u r c e s , S c i e n c e a n d I n d u st r y D i v i s i o n a v a i l a b l e a t
http://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/ metacrs939/m1/1/highresd/ IB10022.html
(Accessed March 18, 2015).
18
"2014 R&D Magazine Global Funding Forecast"Dec 2013 p. 14 available at http://
www.battelle.org/docs/tpp/2014_global_rd_funding_forecast.pdf , (Accessed March 26, 2015)
19
"China-Defence Industry" IHS Jane's World Defence Industry 2014 p.97.
20
Cheung, Tai Ming "The Chinese Defence Economy's Long March from Imitation to Innovation" p.2
available at http://igcc.ucsd.edu/assets/001/500868.pdf- (Accessed April 04, 2015).
21
Francis Ed and Puska Susan M."Contemporary Chinese Defence Industry Reforms and Civil-
Military Integration in Three Key Organisations "p.1 available at https://
escholarship.org/uc/item/3dq7x6d2- (Accessed April 11, 2015).
22
http://en.wikepedia.org/wiki/Defence_Research_and_Development_Organisation
23
"Whither Science Education In Indian Colleges?" p.4 Observer Research Foundation Mumbai
Ideas and Action for a Better India available at www.academia.edu/.../
WHITHER_SCIENCE_EDUCATION_IN_INDIA. (Accessed April 14, 2015).
24
Turse Nick "The Wild and Strange World of DARPA" p.1 Mason History News Network available at
http://historynewsnetwork.org/article/3894 (Accessed April 22, 2015)

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Author's Biodata
Commander Achal Malhotra is a graduate from the National Defense
Academy and was commissioned into Engineering Branch on 01 Jul 1997.
The officer completed his B Tech (Mechanical) from Naval College of
Engineering (80th Basic Engineering Course) in Dec 99 and is an active
submariner since Dec 03. In 2007, the officer completed his ME (Marine)
Cdr Nitin Saxena with distinction from Defense Institute of Advanced Technology, Pune
where he was awarded Lord Rayleigh award for standing first in 'Vibration
Studies' as also Gold Medal for standing first in order of merit. Further, in Oct
13, the officer was awarded Chief of Naval Staff Gold Medal in the Technical
Management Course at Naval War College, Goa.

Cdr UP Singh, was commissioned into the Engineering Branch of the Indian
Navy in the year 2003. The officer completed his BE (Mech) in 2003 from
Naval College of Engineering, INS Shivaji, Lonavla and MTech in Nuclear
Science from Homi Babha National Institute in 2011. His appointments
include tenures as Senior Engineer Officer onboard INS Sindhuraj & INS
Cdr Nitin Saxena Sindhuvijay and Engineer Officer onboard INS Sindhuratna. The ashore
appointments held by the officer was Deputy Project Director and Senior
Instructor Diesel & Gas Turbine Wing at INS Shivaji, Lonavla. The officer is
presently posted at Directorate of Submarine Acquisition at IHQ MoD (N).

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 article

23 'PROJECT MANAGEMENT' AN ESSENTIAL TOOL

FOR SUBMARINE CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS

(Captain Gaurav Doogar)

“How does a project get to be a year late? One day at a time”.
- Frederick Brooks

Background
1. The developments in India's immediate neighbourhood over the past decade have led India to
take a close look at her security policies. The recent advances have increased the widely-
sensed need for the rapid modernisation of the Indian Armed Forces.
2. However, many defence analyst have raised a question on preparedness of Indian armed
forces. According to published literature, India's land forces lack sophisticated weapons and
armoury, the Navy's submarine fleet has dwindled down to 40 percent of the minimum
requirements, and the fighter squadrons are at the level of 60 percent of the mandatory need,
which indeed is a cause of concern.
3. In order to bridge this gap and overcome the deficiencies in the defence capabilities, the
Government of India has taken key initiative through 'Make in India' programme, to boost
economic growth, induct state-of-art technology and give impetus to up-gradation of defence
capabilities. This initiative by the GoI also gives a great responsibility and onus on the Armed
forces and its personnel to participate in the Nation building process with full commitment,
professionalism and competence and make the programme a thriving success.
4. This paper is an attempt to highlight the use of 'Project Management' as a management tool to
fast-track the shipbuilding and submarine construction process, by avoiding delays and cost
overruns, which can be achieved through various techniques and methodologies employed by
project management.

Need for Robust Submarine Construction Programme

5. The Indian Navy's area of operation includes the Arabian Sea, the Indian Ocean, and the Bay of
Bengal. These waters include numerous sea lines of communication (SLOC) chokepoints, such
as the Strait of Hormuz, Bab El Mandeb, and the Malacca Straits. Almost 97% of India's foreign
trade by volume and 60% of the world's sea-borne trade and energy resources are transported
through these strategic bottlenecks. This share of critical global trade is likely to be amplified by
the growing energy demands and industrial exports of East and Southeast Asia.
6. There has been a gradual reduction in both the number and operational status of the present
submarine fleet. The Figure 1, shows the existing gap between the desired and present gap
between the vintage of submarine with the Indian Navy.

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 Figure 1

7. Thus, there is a strong felt need to focus and strengthen the modernizing programme of the
Indian Navy's submarine fleet, with specific emphasis and attention on its nuclear and diesel
submarine construction programmes, to build a strong deterrent attack force.

Project Management in Submarine Construction

8. Unlike any other form of surface ships, submarines must be able to operate quietly, swiftly,
independently and for extended periods on-as well as deep under-the surface of the world's
oceans. As warships, they also carry a remarkable array of weapons-offensive and defensive, as
well as nuclear and conventional-which must be ready at all times. As a result, they are among
the most complex inventions ever developed by mankind.

9. To survive safely and effectively in an alien environment, these machines must be rigorously
built and maintained, and their operators must be carefully screened and trained for any
scenario from normal daily operations to nuclear holocaust. The need for stealth, range and
flexibility, while controlling the size and cost of the submarine has resulted in stringent design
and construction requirements, which become more complex, when dealing with nuclear
submarines. Few of the design and constructions complexities are as follows:-

(a) Limited space and maintenance envelop

(b) Peculiarity in onboard equipment due to depth requirements

(c) High pressure and shock resistant material

(d) Water Tight / Gas Tight integrity

(e) Restricted shipping / unshipping routes

(f) Stealth requirements

282
 (g) Lethal weapon system

(h) Quality of workmanship such as Welding operations

10. It is essential that today the defence PSU and private shipyards, engaged in indigenous
submarine design and construction are optimally equipped with latest design software,
management tools, heavy engineering equipment, professional workforce and cutting edge
technology, to ensure that these stealthy platforms are delivered in right time, quality and cost.
It has become quintessential that the complete process of design, construction, monitoring
and control are undertaken in a methodical manner using systematic tools and software.
Though, the shipyards, both public and private, have adopted to this new requirement quite
aggressively, it is opined that the Indian Navy is yet to adopt any robust management tool for
managing, monitoring and controlling the new construction projects. One such tool, which is
slowly growing importance, especially in Indian and Defence Industry is use of Project
Management (PM).

11. Project Management is a set of principles, methods and techniques for effective planning of
objective-oriented work, thereby, establishing a sound basis for effective scheduling,
controlling and re-planning in the management of programs and projects. In other words, it
provides an organization with powerful tools that improve the organization's ability to plan,
organize, implement and control its activities and the ways it uses its workforce and resources.
Figure 2 shows how PM ensures optimal utilization of resources to produce desired goals,
within allocated budget and planned timelines, and to desired level of performance.

ECONOMICAL ENVIRONMENT TECHNOLOGICAL

WITH IN ALLOTTED
RESOURCES BUDGET

MEN
MATERIAL
MONEY
PROCESS OUTPUT ON SCHEDULE
MACHINERY GOALS
EFFICIENT AND
AND EFFECTIVE OBJECTIVES
METER
MINUTE
AT DESIRED LEVEL OF
INFO TECH PERFORMANCE

SOCIAL LEGAL POLITICAL

Figure 2

283
12. The project management technique has found use in widespread fields / sectors, such as
following:-
(a) Construction (buildings, bridges, motorways, etc)
(b) Manufacturing Industry
(c) Defence
(d) Maritime, shipyards
(e) Software development
(f) Maintenance of large industrial plants
(g) Critical Surgery operations
(h) Films production
(j) Elections Project
13. It is pertinent to mention that we often feel that Project Management is responsibility of the
Contracted agency, such as supplier, vendor, shipyard, etc and not contracting agency or the
Customer. However, PM is equally relevant for both and often becomes a leveraging tool for
the Contracting agency to adapt to the various internal procedures of the shipyards, and to
form close links with the nominated representatives and other stakeholders , for ensuring that
the key issues of cost, time, quality, and above all, customer satisfaction, can be realized.
14. It is, therefore, right time, if not late, that the Indian Navy too realizes the potential of PM and
implements the technique as an inherent management tool in all its internal process and work
systems. It is required that officers and men who tenant important and crucial appointments in
Design and Production Directorates are professionally trained to be certified PM professionals,
so that they can perform their duties seamlessly.

Salient Aspects of Project Management (PM)

15. In the succeeding paragraphs, few salient characteristic and versatility of PM technique have
been illustrated with focus on how it can used in any submarine construction project for better
planning, monitoring, control and quality assurance.
16. Project Planning and Organisation. Project planning plays a vital role in successful
implementation of a project. It includes stating the project objectives, defining tasks necessary
to reach the objectives, making cost estimates, and preparing schedules & budgets. It also
involves assigning overall segments of the plan to individuals, with a minimum of overlap
problems.
17. Planning Process. The first step in project planning process is to prepare a list of overall project
objectives or deliverables. Deliverables are the clearly defined results or outputs produced as
an outcome of the project. A project objective has three dimensions; it must address the

284
 following: -

(a) What is to be achieved (Specifications / QRs / Build Specs)?

(b) By when is it to be achieved (Time)?

(c) At what cost (Resources / Allocated Budget)?

18. In the Indian Navy, the Design and Production Directorates are responsible for managing the
new construction projects. It is important that the personnel appointed in these organisations
are aware of the above dimensions and their inter-relatedness. PM techniques, when applied
to any complex submarine construction project, makes an individual or a project manager
better aware of these conflicting goals of technical performance (Qrs), cost standards and time
target and aids in better and quicker decision making.

19. The Traditional Triple Constraints.

(a) As brought out above, the most essential part of any project is maintaining the right
balance between the triple constraints, namely scope, time, and cost. These are also
referred to as the Project Management Triangle (Refer to Figure 3), where each side
represents a constraint. One side of the triangle cannot be changed without impacting the
others. A further refinement of the constraints separates product 'quality' or
'performance' from scope, and turns quality into a fourth constraint.

Figure 3

(b) As a customer, the Indian Navy, should realize that any change in scope will have an adverse
effect on the cost and time of the project. It is, therefore, imperative that once the design
and build specifications have been frozen, there should be no change in the scope or design
specifications. Also, it is important that these specification should be frozen during the
planning stage itself, much in advance to commencement of construction. The later the
change in the construction stage, more are the time and cost penalties, as can be seen in
the figure below (Refer to Figure 4):-

285
 Cost committed
100%

80%

CONTRIBUTION 66%

Cost Incurred

Case of Change
NEEO

Concept Detailed System

Construction
Design Design use

Figure 4
20. Development of a Project Plan. Once clear objectives have been set, the development of a
project plan follows from answering a logical sequence of questions. A project manager /
project monitoring team should be well aware of these tools to successfully monitor and
control the construction project. These are outlined below: -
(a) What is to be Accomplished? Given the objectives, determine what tasks have to be done
to achieve the objectives. This is done by what is often known as a Work Breakdown
Structure (WBS). The WBS represents a systematic and logical breakdown of the project
into its component parts. For example, construction of submarine can be broadly divided
into three major sections i.e Hull, Engineering and Electrical / Weapons. These can be
further divided into smaller sub-parts or activities, till there are in terms of manageable
units of work for which responsibility for accurately defining, budgeting, scheduling and
controlling can be assigned. For example, engineering construction can be further divided
into Main Propulsion, Auxiliaries and Ship Systems and so on. Figure 5 below shows WBS
for installation of Main Engine on the submarine.

WBS (MAIN ENGINES)

INSTALLATION OF
MAIN ENGINE
1.0

ENGINE AUXILIARY CONTROLS TRIALS

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

COLD
INTAKE CONTROLS CARDS
CHECKS
1.1.1 1.2.1 1.3.1
1.4.1
SAFETY
MAIN ENGINE PUMPS SUPPLY
CHECKS
1.1.2 1.2.2 1.3.2
1.4.2

EXHAUST FUEL TANK SOLENOIDS HOT START

1.1.3 1.2.3 1.3.3 1.4.3

TURBO
STARTERS SENSORS FULL POWER
CHARGER
1.1.4 1.2.4 1.3.4 1.4.4

Figure 5

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(a) Who is Responsible for What? Decide who is to be responsible for carrying out each task,
determine the project team, and define a Task Responsibility Matrix (TRM). Work as
defined by the WBS is assigned to responsible organisational units, contractors and
individuals. The responsibility matrix lists down the tasks in project breakdown structure
on one side and the appointments responsible for execution / supervision on the other.
TRM is very relevant for Design / Production Directorates, as it useful for monitoring and
assessing how well the responsibilities are being carried out amongst various stake
holders. It also helps avoid 'passing the buck', between the stake holders, a common cause
of delays and cost overruns in Government organisations. A typical method was for
assigning responsibilities is shown in Figure 6 below:-

Figure 6 R- RESPONSIBLE, A-APPROVE, I- INFORM C-CONSULT

(c) What Resources are Required? Identify what resources will be used for each task,
answering questions such as: How many man-days or man-weeks are involved? What will
they cost? What purchases and materials will be needed? At the end of which a Project
Cost Estimate (PCE) is produced. Therefore, a PCE serves as a standard for comparison, a
baseline from which to measure the difference between the actual and planned uses of
resources. Hence, it is a very important tool was exercising strict control over the progress
of the project and can be used by the Design Directorates / Project Monitoring Group
(PMG) to ensure optimum utilization of resources.

(d) What must be Done When? Develop a Project Schedule (PS), putting the tasks into a logical
sequence, and taking note of the time required for each task. A schedule is a project plan
against calendar time. It is generally prepared by integrating the WCP, TRM with the project
schedule shown by a bar / Gantt chart.

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 (e) How will Resources be Allocated? The cost estimate and project schedule synchronised
together develop a Time-Phased Budget (TPB), which will allow the project to be
monitored closely, at each cardinal milestone of the construction phase.

21. Detailed Project Report (DPR).

(a) A detailed project report is prepared by the Professional entity in consultation with the
Shipyard, which is essentially a project plan in an executable format. It is an elaborate and
systematic adoption of the feasibility report, which was prepared with the purpose of
taking a decision regarding the go-ahead of the project. The DPR is essentially a tool for
implementation answers basic questions such as when, why, what and who, as shown in
Figure 7.

Figure 7

(b) The preparation of the DPR involves in-depth planning and detailed examination of all
aspects of the project. The DPR consist of following major heads, viz. Project Summary,
Technical plan, Reliability and Assurance provisions, Management plan, Risk Analysis and
Contingency plan, Procurement and Logistics plan, Schedules, Financial plan,
Environment, Safety and Health Protection plan, etc, typical to any construction project.

(c) A thorough knowledge of the DPR is, therefore, imperative for the PMG / Customer
organisation, to understand the various activities involved at various stages of the
construction phase, and can thus be used to identify check points or milestones, to
measure the progress of the project, both in terms of money and time.

22. Project Scheduling using Networks.

(a) Shipbuilding involves multiple activities that are inter-related, inter-dependent and time-
critical. Apart from conventional methods, like bar charts or Gantt charts (Refer to
Figure 8), more scientific tools and techniques are required to be employed so that

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 complexities of such operations are better comprehended and more easily visualised.
Networks are powerful tools which could be effectively used for planning and controlling
various new construction projects. Their employment can assist in better management
and control of each complex activity, so that the delays and cost overruns can be avoided.

Figure 8

(b) The two most widely used Network techniques are PERT and CPM. PERT stands for
'Programme Evaluation & Review Technique' is a Probabilistic model and CPM is the
abbreviation for 'Critical Path Method' is a Deterministic model. The techniques of PERT
and CPM can be used by PMG / Design Directorates in monitoring that various activities are
completed on schedule. The Network techniques minimize production delays,
interruptions and conflicts. These techniques are very helpful in coordinating various jobs
of the total project and thereby expedite and achieve completion of project on time.

(c) The additional advantages of this technique are that it permits the customer / PMG to
foresee the effects of resource constraints (and if necessary, make contingency plans) and
during execution enables the project manager to monitor deviations between predictions
& actual results and institute corrective measures.

23. Earned Value Management System (EVMS).

(a) Economic viability of the project is assessed and reassessed at intervals throughout its
development, both before and after the project has been approved. A low assessment,
therefore, could bring a lot of trouble to those involved in the project. But a high estimate
is also undesirable since it leads to a waste due to non-allocation of funds for alternate
uses.

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 (b) Management must compare the time, cost and performance schedule of the programme
to the budgeted time, cost and performance, not independently but in an integrated
manner. Being within one's budget at the proper time serves no useful purpose if
performance is only 75 percent. All three resource parameters - time, cost and schedule
must be analysed as a group (or else we might "win the battle but loose the war") to verify
that the correct standards were selected and that they are properly used.

Budget at Completion

Cost
Variance
Schedule
Variance
Cost

Planned
Actual Value
Time
Cost now
Earned
Value

Time Time
Behind

Figure 9
(c) EVMS is thus a very effective tool of PM for monitoring of projects as it gives true picture on
the progress of the project in terms of Cost and Schedule Variances (Refer to Figure 9) and
aids in taking corrective action at correct point of time.

24. Project Monitoring & Control.

(a) Monitoring involves watching the progress against time, resources and performance
schedules during the execution of the project and identifying lagging areas requiring timely
attention and action. The essence of good monitoring system is the speed of
communication of dependable information on key result areas, the competence of the
monitoring agency (Shipyard or Indian Navy) to interpret the signal and the ability to lead
to intervention in a constructive manner.

(b) Monitoring and Control go hand in hand. While monitoring helps in identification of
deviations from the plan, the control involves corrective action and ensures that deviations
are overcome and performance is brought back to the planned course. Some of the
common causes for deviations in any ship / submarine construction project are as follows: -

(i) Excessive optimism on the part of project planners, resulting in unrealistic estimates
with regard to time, funds, manpower, work performance and other resources
required to do an activity.

(ii) Change in the scope and design of the project, post commencement of the project.

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 (iii) Inefficient administrative procedures like delays in according sanctions, deployment of
staff, procurement of materials etc.

(iv) Delays in selection and supply of equipment.

(v) Lack of coordination between the Contracting and Contracted agencies.

(c) For monitoring to be effective, the monitoring system has to be integrated in project
organisation at the planning stage. Project monitoring, an integral part of project
management provides benefits at minimal cost. It is estimated that on an average, the cost
of monitoring varies between 0.05 percent and 0.5 percent for very large projects and
relatively small projects respectively. It is essential that monitoring is treated as a staff
function and control as a line responsibility. Monitoring should be organised at various
levels of the organisation and should be integrated with the organisational hierarchy and
functional responsibilities. The progress of the project can be monitored through a number
of reports, such as Project Status Report, Project Schedule Chart and Project Financial
Status Report.

25. Project Risk Management. Project risk management seeks to manage and control the risk of
project success to an acceptable level. Project risk deals with the risk to project success in
terms of scope, cost, and schedule, including customer satisfaction. Other processes deal with
other risks, such as health, safety risk and environmental risk. Project risk management seeks
to control risks beyond the scope of the project plan and beyond the circle of control of the
project manager.

(a) Risk Management. As we have highlighted earlier that submarine construction projects
are one of the most complex projects to handle. The development of a realistic project
schedule and detailed plan, is made on large number of assumptions, both by the shipyard,
as well as the Contracting agency. Unfortunately, even the best prepared plans, the project
schedule could go wrong from time to time. However, efforts can be made to identify
these problems at the earliest and take necessary actions to avoid them. There is always
the possibility of unforeseen risks leading to unexpected issues. These could be addressed
with prompt reaction from the project manager. It is therefore necessary to identify the
signals or triggers that suggest a risk that is likely to happen and keep the project team alert
to the possibility of any risk becoming a reality.

(b) Risk Management Process. Project Risk Management Process starts with identifying the
risks projects may encounter. Risk assessment may be quantitative or qualitative.
Quantitative risk assessment tools include failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA),
Monte Carlo analysis, project simulation, PERT, probabilistic safety assessments (PSA), and
management oversight or risk tree (MORT). The risk can be quantified in terms of Risk
Priority Number (RPN) based on the probability of risk, severity of risk and detection
capability.

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 (c) Risk Contingency Plan. After the risk have been quantified based on their RPN ratings, the
next important task by the project manager is to seek necessary risk mitigation or risk
avoidance strategy, in form of a contingency plan (Refer to Figure 10). Risk mitigation
strategy is not an easy task in any complex construction project, since the problem area at
times is beyond the control of all stake holders. Thus, it is very essential that all
stakeholders work in synergy to identify these problem areas well in advance and resolve
them amicably, without affecting the project time lines and cost.

Identified Risk Probability Serverity of Detection RPN Risk Mitigation

of Risk Risk Capability
Accident 5 5 8 200 Safety Precautions
Materials Failure 4 8 5 160 Stringent Quality Checks
Weather 3 3 4 36 Forecast
Labour Strike 4 8 4 128 Outsourcing
Delay in Supply of 5 6 5 150 Multiple Vendors
Equipment

Figure 10

26. Project Management Software.

(a) There are large number of PM software available in the market. These software are very
powerful and can aid in preparation of WBS, Gantt charts, Network diagrams, EVMS
calculations, project status reports, base line charts, etc. Thus, we can see that with even
shallow knowledge of PM techniques, we can still use these software to provide large
amount of information of the project, which can help in identifying the bottlenecks and
take necessary corrective actions.

(b) Most of these software can be purchased online. The Design / Production Directorates can
greatly benefit from these software, as they can parallelly monitor all construction
activities along with the shipyard with help of these software and keep a close control on
each activity. A few examples of PM software are MS project, Atlassian JIRA, Podio,
Smartsheet, Basecamp, Teamwork PM, etc.

Training on Project Management at College of Defence

Management (CDM)
27. Project management is being taught at various public / private institutions, primarily under
two certifications viz. International Project Management Association (IPMA) and Project
Management Professional (PMP).

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28. The College of Defence Management (CDM) at Secunderabad is a premier Tri-services Defence
Institute imparting management training to senior officers of Armed forces, selected civilian
officers from Ministry of Defence and officers of friendly foreign countries. The college is
affiliated to Osmania University. CDM is institutional member of various professional
associations including All India Management Association (AIMA) and International Project
Management Associates (IPMA).

29. With its Motto of "Victory through Excellence", the college endeavors to ensure the academic
curriculum has high professional relevance. The college is the only Defence Services institute,
where in Project Management is being covered as a separate full-fledged subject, in training
curriculum of various courses such as Higher Defence Management Course (HDMC) and
Management Development Programme (MDP) with training throughput of more than 200
officers / civilians. CDM has the unique honour of being an authorized testing center for Level
'D' Certification and has empowered 284 armed forces officers to be certified on Project
management skills.

30. CDM imparts training in the concept and practical utility of project management practices
including software skills to participants. The participants are also encouraged to carry out
research and case studies in the subject of Project Management. While focusing on PM
aspects, the College endeavours to emphasize on its interdisciplinary nature and utility over a
wide arena including operations, logistics administration, knowledge management and
human resource enrichment. As a part of consultancy, the intellectual outputs generated have
been disseminated to the defence services environment. These have been creatively
implemented at various levels to enhance organisational effectiveness.

31. The College has a competent faculty which consist of a healthy mix of academic prudence and
field experience. The college encourages its faculty to participate in external courses, seminars,
workshops and paper presentations held at other professional institutes. This year, the college
undertook IPMA Level 'C' Certification examination for the first time. A total of ten officers from
the faculty underwent rigorous training followed by a comprehensive evaluation consisting of
written examination, group discussions, case studies and interview, to qualify successfully for
IPMA Level 'C' certificate. The college is also fortunate to have two of its Ex-Commandants
being Level 'A' certified PM professionals.

Conclusion
32. The military budget over the years have been kept at a near steady growth rate of just below 2%
of GDP catering for the basic needs. Though the nation may understand the need of armed
forces to modernize, the competing priorities of social and other infrastructural needs
combined with political and regional compulsions may hinder the free flow of finances. This
demands that the future planned infrastructure creation, induction of new equipment, force
accretion and modernization plans are undertaken with utmost planning and optimal resource

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 management. This fine balancing act of achieving the strategic goal by harnessing the effective
power of combination of technology, human resource, financial and other resources is
accredited to Project Management.

33. We have seen in the above-mentioned paragraphs that how powerful and versatile are the
techniques and tools of project management in monitoring and control of any huge complex
project, such as ship construction. The fallacy that project management is a tool to be adopted
and implemented by only shipyards / contracted agency, should be completed removed from
our thought process. In fact, it has become increasing important to adopt to such scientific
management tools, to be able to understand the nuances of the ever changing technology /
processes and overcome the challenges in effective and efficient manner.

34. It is, therefore imperative that Indian Navy looks at adopting project management as
essentials skill and management tool for all young / mid-level officers, who are entrusted with
responsibilities of handling projects, operations, refits, logistics, procurements and ship
construction. The Indian Navy should utilize the expertise and training facilities at College of
Defence Management to train maximum officers on PM through HDMC and MDP courses. In
the long run, the subject should become part the various ab-initio / professional course
conducted by the Navy, so that all officers / sailors are given formal training on PM, to ensure
that Indian Navy can operate as an advanced, deterrent and a professionally competent 'Blue
Water' force.

Bibliography
1. Azzopardi S, "The Evolution of Project Management", article available at
www.projectsmart.co.uk.
2. Bakouros Y and Kelessidis V, "Project Management", Jan 2000.
3. Cmde Bhargava M (Retd), Presentation on "Indian Industry Trends in Defence Shipbuilding", 12
Jun 2015.
4. Buckingham J and Hodge C, "Submarine Power and Propulsion - Trend and Opportunities",
2008.
5. Dutta A, "Indian Defence Modernization: Challenges and Prospects", 07 Jul 2016, available at
www.indiandefencereview.com
6. "Future of Indian Navy" from Wikipedia.
7. Guerin D, "Project Management in Construction Industry", Mar 2012.
8. "India Submarine Capabilities", 30 Sep 2015, article available at www.nti.org.

294
9. Koon O, Kong LC, Wee TC, "Introduction to Submarine Design", available at www.dsta.gov.sg.
10. Lientz B and Rea K, "Project Management for 21st Century", 07 Jun 2007, 395 pages.
11. "Make in India' Paradigm - Roadmap for a Future Ready Naval Force", Compilation of papers by
Indian Navy Officers for FICCI Seminar, 2016.
12. "Project Management", Precis published by College of Defence Management, 2016 "Role of
Project Monitoring Group" available at www.pmindia.gov.in
13. Sapolsky HM, "The Polaris System Development", Hav University Press, 1972.
14. Sharma AV, Presentation on "Project Management Strategies for Shipyard" during Conference
of Offshore Inspection, Maintenance and Repair, IBC-Asia.
15. Shukla A, " India's Navy: Strong on Aircraft Carriers, Short of Submarines", 30 Sep 2014, article
available at www.business-standard.com
16. Singh A, "India's Submarine Modernization Plans", 05 May 2016, available at IDSA website
www.idsa.in
17. Cmde Singh AJ (Retd), " India's Indigenous Submarine Construction Industry Needs a Bigger
Push", Apr 2016, available at www.forceindia.net
18. Tanuska P, "Project Management", 2007, 46 pages.
19. Thimmavajjala P, "Make in India: Innovative Project Management for Indian Companies",
2016.
20. "The Indian Shipbuilding Industry" article in International Business Development.
21. 'US navy Fleet Submarine Manual, NavPers 1610', June 1946.
22. Woolner D, "Lessons of the Collins Submarine Program for Improved Oversight of Defence
Procurement", 18 Sep 2011, available at www.aph.gov.au

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Author's Biodata
Captain Gaurav Doogar, was commissioned in Indian Navy in Nov 94. He did
his B. Tech in Mechanical Engineering from INS Shivaji, Lonavla and M.Tech in
Industrial Engineering Management from IIT, Kharagpur. The officer has also
undergone 64th DSSC and HDMC-11. The officer's afloat appointments
include Asst. Engineer Officer on Rajput and Mysore (Commissioning Crew),
Cdr Nitin Saxena Senior Engineer on Delhi and Engineer Officer on board Mumbai. The
Officer's Staff appointments include Senior Instructor at EPCT School,
Shivaji, Manager Systems (MSYS) at ND(Mbi), Joint Director at IHQ MoD (N) /
DME and Additional Command Refit Officer at HQWNC, Mumbai. The officer
has distinction of being awarded 'CNS Silver Medal' during B.Tech, MESC
Trophy at Shivaji, MPCTC Trophy at DIAT, Pune and 'Institute Silver Medal' at
IIT, Kharagpur. The officer has contributed several papers for journals and
seminars on varied topics. The officer is presently serving as 'Directing Staff'
at College of Defence Management, Secunderabad. The officer is a certified
Project Manager with IPMA Level 'C' certification.

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 article

24 UNDERWATER OPTICAL WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

AN ALTERNATIVE TO CONVENTIONAL ACOUSTIC
TECHNIQUES FOR UNDERWATER APPLICATIONS
(Lt Cdr Ankit Atree)

Abstract- With the rise of asymmetric threats in the military scenario, a potent underwater arm is a
must have for all world navies. Towards this, keeping abreast with the threat scenario on land is
critical for submarines. Relaying of information in the fastest possible time can help in better
planning and quicker response. This requires transfer of high bandwidth data (plots, images, videos)
in a reliable fashion with minimum latency. The present day technology of underwater acoustic
communication is a legacy system and cannot provide the high data rates required. Underwater
Optical Wireless Communication is being seen as the best alternative to meet this challenge. The
paper discusses an underwater optical wireless link in detail covering aspects pertaining to the
transmitter, receiver, channel properties and suggests methods to overcome the challenges
discussed. From the analysis it is concluded that high data rate underwater optical wireless
networks are a feasible solution for the emerging needs in the underwater domain.

1. Introduction
Conventionally, underwater communication has been undertaken using acoustic techniques.
The propagation of sound in water is fairly well studied and systems using sound as a source
have been in existence for a long time. Whilst sound is able to travel for long distances in water,
the propagation is highly dependent on temperature, pressure and salinity. As a result, the
presence of thermo clines (temperature gradients) and haloclines (salinity gradients) in the
ocean cause sound waves to refract when encountering these boundaries. This can drastically
change the direction in which the sound is moving. The performance of acoustic
communication models vary considerably with time of the day and depth of operation thus
making it unreliable when the need is real time communication. Being legacy systems, the data
rates of acoustic modems are restricted to a few thousand kilobits per second due to severe
frequency based attenuation and surface induced pulse spread[1]. In addition, since the speed
of propagation of sound in water is only 1500 m/sec, acoustic communication systems fall
short when the requirement is high latency and synchronisation. As a result, acoustic
communication systems are unable to satisfy the needs of emerging underwater applications.
An alternative means of underwater communication is based on optics, wherein considerably
high data rates are possible. Since the speed of light in water is only marginally lesser the that in
free space, an optical communication can deliver the high latency and synchronisation where
acoustic systems fell short. However, the underwater channel poses a challenging
environment for propagation of an optical signal. Effects like scattering and absorption cause
the optical beam to widen in the spatial, angular, temporal and polarisation domains. Inspite of
the threat posed, it is possible for an optical beam to travel long distances in water as is shown
below.

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2. Figure 1 shown the absorption spectrum of electromagnetic radiation in water[2]. The
absorption coefficient is plotted as a function of wavelength. In the visible domain (350-
750nm), the absorption coefficient drops to as low as 10-4/cm. This indicates that an
underwater optical link designed to function within the blue/ green region is capable of
working over a large range. The succeeding paragraphs bring out an analysis of the various
facets involved in setting up such a link.

Figure 1 – Absorption Spectrum of Electromagnetic Radiation in Water

An Underwater Wireless Optical Communication Link.

Figure 2 – An Underwater Optical Communication Link

3. An underwater communication link is made up of certain key components as indicated in

Figure 2. An optical transmitter is fed binary data through a source and this binary data is
converted into light and transmitted over the channel. The channel (ocean water) changes the
characteristics of the light being transmitted and post traversing through the channel, the
optical beam reaches the receiver, which senses the incoming light and converts this optical
signal back into binary data which is then processed. There are many different ways in which
light can carry data but the simplest method is on-off keying, wherein the presence of data or a

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 1-bit is represented by switching one of the optical source and a 0-bit is represented by
switching off of the optical source. The speed (bandwidth) and reliability of the link depends
upon how fast the transmitter can undertake the switching and how quickly and reliably the
receiver can sense the state of the light. The paper discusses each aspect of the underwater
communication link sequentially.

4. Optical Transmitter. An optical transmitter converts electric data signals into optical signals
and projects this optical signal into the transmission channel. It consists of a photon source
which undertakes the electro-optical conversion as well as associated circuitry required to
drive the optical source to a desired power level. Optical instruments like lenses or reflectors
required to condition the output beam may also be required.

Figure 3 – Optical Transmitter

5. Choosing the correct photon source is critical to the link design. Whilst any optical source can
be used, the high switching speed and power level constraints which the link requires place
restrictions on the possible sources. The most commonly available sources which adhere to
these restrictions are Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) and Laser Diodes.

(a) LEDs are p-n junction diodes which emit light when the junction is forward biased. The
wavelength of light transmitted depends upon the band gap energy of the
semiconductor used to make the diode. By using specific semiconductors, it is possible to
keep the output spectrum as narrow as 50nm. The power of the light transmitted depends
upon the amount of drive current that is connected across the junction. The
switching speed of LEDs depends on the recombination time between electrons and holes
and may vary from 1nsec to 1msec. This essentially means that LEDs can be used for
achieving modulation speeds upto a few Mhz. LEDs are advantageous as they are known
to be stable and reliable light sources with long life and are cheap and easily available. They
are also immune to changes in temperature and pressure.

Figure 4 - LED Schematic

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(b) Laser Diodes work on a principle similar to LEDs as they too are made on p-n junctions.
However, they are modified to allow the spontaneously emitted photons to cause other
electron hole pairs to recombine. This results in the emitted photons having the same energy,
frequency and phase as the original photon which initiated the process. This is called as
stimulated emission and leads to the emitted light being coherent and therefore confined in a
much narrower spectrum (as narrow as 1nm). This is one of the biggest advantages of using
Laser Diodes. They also have much faster recombination times andcan switch at speeds as high
as a few GHz. The problem with Laser Diodes is that they are highly sensitive to changes in
temperature and pressure and such changes can cause the frequency of transmission to shift.
Therefore, a thermal, optical and electrical feedback is required to prevent the laser diode
from failing. This adds complexity and cost to the system and also reduces the life and reliability
of Laser Diodes. A tabulated comparison of LEDs and Laser diodes is brought out in Table 1.

Figure 5 – Laser Diode Diagram

Table 1 – Comparison between LEDs and Laser Diodes

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6. Optical Receiver. The optical receiver system detects the incoming optical signal and converts
it into an electrical signal. It consists of a photon detector which performs the optical to
electrical conversion. Additionally, associated electronics which convert the electrical signals
into TTL voltage levels are also a part of the receiver. A variety of devices can be used as the
photon detector. A few of these are discussed in the succeeding paragraphs:-

Figure 6 – Optical Receiver System

(a) Photoresistors. Photoresistors or Light Dependant Resistors work on the principle of

varying conductivity with incident light. They have very high resistance in the dark and the
resistance reduces as light is incident on them. Though they have very good light
sensitivity, they respond very slowly. It typically takes over a millisecond for a
photoresistor to fully respond to the presence of light. Additionally, it can take a couple of
seconds for the photoresistor to return to its dark resistance after the light signal has
ended. This is unacceptably slow for switching speeds of over 1 Mhz.

(b) Photothyristors. Photothyristors function quite similar to diodes. Like diodes, thyristors
conduct current when their anode has a higher voltage than their cathode. But unlike
diodes, thyristors have a third lead (the gate) that controls when the thyristor starts
conducting current. The gate must have a positive voltage and sufficient current before the
thyristor will turn on. After the thyristor is activated, the gate does not affect the thyristor
anymore. This means that once a photothyristor has been optically triggered, turning off
the light will not turn off the thyristor. Only turning off power to the circuit or making the
cathode have a higher voltage compared to the anode will do that. For this reason,
photothyristors are not ideal for high speed communication purposes.

(c) Phototransistors. Phototransistors (FETs) are like regular transistors, only their base is
exposed to light. When the photons hit the base, either a current or a voltage is produced
which starts to turn "on" the transistor. This means that when the phototransistor is in the
dark, very little current flows through the transistor, but in the presence of light, the
current or voltage signal produced by the light is amplified by the transistor's current gain
as the transistor turns on and allows current to flow from the collector to the emitter. This
internal gain (from one hundred to several thousand) makes phototransistors incredibly
sensitive to any light signal. Unfortunately, they are only moderately fast (a few KHz) even
though they are relatively robust with regards to noise.

(d) Photomultipliers. Photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) are a type of vacuum tube that is very
light sensitive. Incident light produces electrons, which are accelerated and multiplied by
dynode plates. The current can be multiplied over a million times after going through
multiple dynode stages. Photomultiplier tubes are great for detecting low light level

301
 signals, as they are able to detect even single photons. Because of their high sensitivity,
they are easily affected by ambient light. In order to produce such high gains,
photomultipliers are large and need high voltage levels (thousands of volts). They are
fragile, easily affected by magnetic fields, and expensive.

(e) Photodiodes. Similar to other photon detectors, photodiodes convert light energy
into electrical current. When incident light hits the photodiode, it turns the photodiode
into a current source that pumps current from the cathode to the anode. When a photon
passes through the diode it can excite an electron, creating an electron-hole pair. If this
happens close enough to the depletion region, the inherent electric field will push holes
towards the anode (p side) and electrons towards the cathode (n side). This separation of
charges leads to a voltage potential across the p-n junction. This potential produces a
photocurrent, as electrons flow from the electron-abundant cathode towards the hole-
abundant anode. Since each photon can only excite one electron at most, photodiodes do
not have any internal gain, but they are incredibly linear. Additionally, since photons can go
through a diode without exciting any electrons, photodiodes do not have the sensitivity
(quantum efficiency) of photomultiplier tubes that can detect single photons.
Photodiodes can have rise times as short as 10 picoseconds and are relatively robust to
noise.

(f) Avalanche Photodiode. Avalanche photodiodes are similar to conventional photodiodes,

except that they can generate multiple electron-hole pairs as a result of absorbing a single
photon. This multiplication effect is due to a strong electric field across the photodiode
which gives photon-generated electrons enough energy to create secondary electron-
hole pairs, which in turn can create more electron-hole pairs in avalanche multiplication.
The internal gain, which can be on the order of 102 to 104, gives the avalanche
photodiodes much more sensitivity, but also introduces more noise into the signal,
especially in the presence of ambient light. Avalanche photodiodes are non-linear, since
their multiplication is non-linearly dependant on supply voltage and temperature.
Because of their sensitivity to these factors, special circuitry is needed adding complexity
and cost while reducing reliability. They also require large supply voltages, ranging from
30-300 volts.

Table 2 – Comparison of Various Optical Receivers

302
7. The Underwater Channel. Prior trying to design an Underwater Optical Communication Link, it
is important to study the Optical Properties of the medium. Sea water contains particles with
size ranging from water molecules of size 0.1 nm to small organic particles of size 1 nm,
phytoplankton's size ranging from 1?m to 100's of ?m. Each of these particles contributes in
some way to its optical properties.

(a) Losses Encountered by an Optical Beam in Water. The losses encountered by an optical
beam while propagating in water can be broadly classified into Attenuation and
Turbulence. Attenuation can be further classified into Absorption and Scattering, while
Turbulence can be further classified into Beam Wander and Scintillations.

Figure 7 – Losses Encountered by an Optical Beam in Water

(i) Absorption. Absorption refers to the loss of energy that is suffered by an optical beam
when it interacts with the water molecules and other particulate matter present in
water. As mentioned earlier, water consists of a large number of particulate
matter and each particulate matter has its own absorption spectrum. One of the most
commonly found dissolved constituent of sea water is chlorophyll. The absorption
spectrum of pure seawater and absorption by a few types of chlorophyll generally
found in sea water is shown in the Figure 8[3]. Further, at different parts of the ocean,
due to varying composition of these particulate matters, the absorption is likely to be
different. It can be seen from the figure that while pure seawater absorbs blue/ green
light minimally as compared to other wavelengths, the absorption of light by
particulate matter varies for different kinds of particles. This gives an indication of how
complex the underwater absorption scenario is.
Absorption by pure sea water
4 0.100
Chl-b
Chl-c
PSC
absorption coefficient (m^-1)

0.080 PPC
3
absorption coefficient

0.060
2

0.040
1
0.020

0
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 0.000
400 450 500 550 600 650 700
wavelength (nm) wavelength (nm)

Figure 8 – Absorption Spectrum of Pure Seawater and Different Types of Chlorophyll Found in Seawater

303
 (ii) Scattering. Scattering of light is basically the deviation of photons from their straight
trajectory caused due to non uniformities in the medium. Scattering is not principally a
loss of energy, as no part of the energy is actually lost, however itresults in the energy
spreading out over a larger distance. For wavelengths in the visible region, photons
would experience Rayleigh scattering from particles of size much smaller than the
wavelength of light while Mie scattering would occur for particles of size equal to or
larger than the wavelength[4]. The difference between the two lies in the fact that
while Rayleigh scattering scatters uniformly in all directions, Mie Scattering is
predominantly forward directional.

Figure 9 – Rayleigh Scattering and Mie Scattering

(b) Turbulence. Turbulent ocean flow causes variations in temperature, pressure and salinity.
These parameters in turn result in localised variations in refractive index of the medium.
These localised variations in refractive index cause the entire water medium to act as if
consisting of a large number of lenses of varying sizes[5]. These lenses of varying sizes can
be thought of as eddies which cause the incident beam to be refracted. Eddies of size
smaller than the incident beam will cause localised irradiance fluctuations in the beam.
This happens because a part of the total beam gets refracted and upon emerging out of the
eddy, interferes with the original beam. This interference may be constructive or
destructive depending upon the phase difference between the two beams. This in turn
leads to areas of high and low irradiance within the laser beam called as Scintillations.
Figure 10 shows the image of a laser beam which has traversed 60 m from the source. The
localised irradiance fluctuations can be clearly seen in the picture. The problem of
scintillations can be overcome by ensuring that the aperture of the receiver is large
enough to capture the entire beam.

Figure 10 – Scintillations Observed on a Laser Beam which has Travelled 60 m from the source

304
(c) Beam Wander. Eddies of size larger than the optical beam would cause the entire beam to
be deflected. This would manifest itself in the form of a wandering of the entire beam also
known as Beam Wander. An illustration of Beam Wander is given in Fig 6. Beam Wander
would result in alignment issues at the receiver and would require precise pointing and
tracking systems to overcome.

WLT2 Long term beam spread

Figure 11 - An Illustration of Beam Wander[6]

(d) Additional Sources of interference In addition to the losses discussed above, there are a
multitude of other sources of interference which the optical link might encounter. These
include:-

(i) Solar Interference This interference would particularly exist in the top layers of the
water channel, e.g. euphotic zone of the ocean. This would manifest itself in the form
of background noise at the receiver. Appropriate filters for the transmitted wavelength
would reduce the effects of background radiation considerably.

(ii) Multi-Path Interference Multi-path interference is caused when scattered photons are
re-scattered back towards the receiver, thereby creating dispersion and spreading in
the received signal. This phenomenon, which is routinely experienced in RF
communication, is a relatively explored area of research in the field of free space
optical communication, however the effects of such interference on an underwater
optical link are unknown.

(iii) Physical Obstructions Physical obstructions such as fish or other marine animals will
cause momentary loss of signal at the receiver. Appropriate error- checking and
redundancy measures must be taken to assure that lost data is retransmitted.

(iv) Turbulence at the Air Water interface An optical beam reflecting/ refracting from the
water surface would further experience heavy turbulence at the surface which would
require precise beam tracking systems along with suitable optical arrangements to be
able to capture the beam. In a scenario where the beam is required to interact with the
Air Water interface, the turbulence faced would far exceed the turbulence due to beam
wander or scintillations.

305
8. Mitigating Channel Effects. Having understood the basic optical properties of the
underwater channel, suitable methods to mitigate the effects of the channel need to be
investigated. Since systems using optical signals for communication/ detection in free space
are already in use, certain concepts can directly be borrowed from the free space scenario. A
large number of research models are available for optical beams travelling in a medium. Whilst
writing this paper concepts researched by Kolmogorov[7],[8] have been utilised. As per
Kolmogorov, when an optical beam interacts with a medium, the energy is transferred from
larger turbulent eddies (pockets of varying refractive index) to smaller ones till such time as the
energy is completely dissipated due to viscosity of the medium.

(a) Scintillations and Beam Wander. As already mentioned, scintillation refers to

localised irradiance fluctuations within a beam, whereas beam wander refers to
movement of the entire beam. In order to depict scintillation and beam wander in a real
time scenario, an underwater link using a laser source (532nm (Green), 5mW power
output) and a receiver using a silicon phototransistor (L14G2) was set up in a 30 m glass
tank. The link setup is shown in Figure 12. The laser was externally modulated using a
driver circuit and the receiver was connected with an Op Amp (OPA 656) in
transimpedance configuration. The data was captured on an oscilloscope and transferred
to a laptop for post processing in Matlab. The laser beam travelled a distance of 20 meters
in water and was made to interact with the air-water interface as well in order to study the
effect of turbulence at the interface. The tank had a wavemaker which could be utilised for
inducing turbulence in the tank. The captured beam after travelling through the turbulent
media is depicted in Figure 13. From the figure, it can be concluded that the long term
turbulence (which causes the beam to go outside the aperture of the receiver) is due to
beam wander, whilst the short term turbulence (due to localised irradiance fluctuations) is
due to scintillations. In order to reduce the effects of optical turbulence, the following
methods can be utilised:-

(i) Increasing the size of the receiver aperture offers an effective and simple way to reduce
scintillations. This method is called as "Aperture Averaging" and is fairly well studied
and applied for free space optics and thus a similar method could also be utilised for
mitigating scintillation effects for underwater optics. The aim is to keep the receiver
aperture larger than the laser beam diameter.

(ii) A light diffuser can be used as a beam expander to counter beam wander. A light
diffuser would spread out the incident light equally in all directions thus allowing for
detection of at least a part of the incident beam even if it wanders over a larger area.

(iii) Multiple transmitters and receivers can be used to capture a larger part of the beam
(MIMO).

(iv) A combination of all the above techniques can be used to counter turbulence.

306
 Figure 12 – Link Setup

Figure 13 – Laser Beam Captured after Travelling 20mtr in a Water Tank

307
Light Diffuser.
11. A light diffuser would act as a beam expander thereby mitigating the effects of beam wander to
a certain extent. A scattering plate (Figure 14) was used a light diffuser in the experiments
conducted. Scattering of light upon falling on the scattering plate can clearly be seen in the
picture. The receiver can lie anywhere behind the scattering plate and would still be able to
capture the incoming light. The downside would be the reduced intensity of the light.

Figure 14 – A Scattering Plate

Fresnel Lens.
13. One possible method of undertaking Aperture Averaging is by using a Fresnel lens. A Fresnel
lens is basically a plate with concentric rings with varying thickness and is particularly useful for
applications requiring large apertures and small focal lengths, as they can be made much
thinner as compared to comparable conventional lenses. A Fresnel lens acts like a focusing
lens converging all light falling upon it to its focal point. A setup using a Fresnel Lens is shown in
Figure 15.

Figure 15 – Fresnel Lens Setup

308
Conclusion
14. This paper discusses an alternate to the conventional acoustic communication systems used by
Submarines whilst deployed underwater. The current demand is of systems with high data rate
and minimum latency. Underwater Optical Communication is superior to its acoustic
counterpart in this regard. Various facets of an underwater optical communication link have
been discussed. The underwater channel poses certain challenges for the propagation of an
optical beam. Methods to overcome these challenges have also been investigated. While
underwater acoustic communications might still be the preferred method of communicating
underwater, ongoing research in the field of underwater optical communication make it a
worthy challenger in the coming future. Methodical research in this field would definitely see
more systems utilising this technique.

309
Author's Biodata
Lt Cdr Ankit Atree belongs to the 19th Naval Engineering Course and the O-
150 batch at INS Valsura. The Officer has done his PG from IIT Madras in the
field of Communication Systems. His previous tenures include ALO(ASW)
onboard INS Mumbai and Staff Officer at INS Valsura. He is currently posted
as an Instructor at the Indian Naval Academy, Ezhimala. His areas of interest
Cdr Nitin Saxena are Fibre Optics, Free Space Optics and Signal Processing.

310
 INDUSTRY
CONTRIBUTION
 SYSNOPSIS
'Platform design implications of emerging
technologies in Batteries/Energy Accumulators'

Currently Indian Navy employs two types of submarines. The first type being the conventional
diesel generator propelled submarine and the other being with latest technology of Nuclear
powered submarine. The conventional diesel submarines are propelled by Flooded Lead Acid
Batteries when under water. The batteries get charged during the night with the help of Diesel
Generators when the submarines surface above the water.
Whereas the nuclear submarines have the capability to stay submerged for a very long time
typically from one month to six months owing the reliable nuclear power generators on board the
submarine which are employed for AIP ( Air Independent Propulsion ). Currently the world over
latest technology batteries are employed for P & PS (Propulsion and Power Supply). The competing
technologies for this usage is VRLA batteries ( AGM Version as adopted by US Navy and Tubular Gel
Version as adopted by German Navy). Both these VRLA versions are Valve Regulated Lead Acid
Batteries with immobilized sulphuric acid electrolyte with self resealing valve which is normally
closed but opens and vents out excess gas (Hydrogen) in high internal pressure conditions. VRLA
batteries when employed for submarine P & PS, do not normally vent out Hydrogen as in the case of
Flooded Lead Acid Batteries currently employed. Hence the hydrogen burners as employed
currently for Flooded Lead Acid Batteries is not required. As these VRLA batteries are sealed, there
is no need to pour distilled water in to the cell to maintain specific gravity, hence the issue of
corrosion of floor damage is virtually avoided.
A further milestone in submarine design is about to enter the market in the form of Lithium based
High Energy Batteries. In combination with High Energy Batteries based on Lithium Polymer
technology the future submarine will have increased capabilities not only in long term slow speed
endurance but also in flank speed and transit. Modern construction methods, materials and
maturing of TRL ( Technology Readiness Level )and MRL( Manufacturing Readiness Level ) the
safety and hazardous issues are almost solved with perfection of Lithium Battery and Battery
Management systems.
With these new battery modules it is possible to increase the battery capacity by factory of 2 for
long time discharge for same volume and factor of 4 for maximum speed discharge compared to
traditional lead acid technology. Furthermore the Lithium batteries are lighter owing to higher
energy density of 200 to 250 Wh / Kg compared to 35 to 40 Wh / Kg of Lead Acid batteries. Lithium
cells can take very high charging currents which can enable lower indiscretion rates. They can be
discharged upto 80 % DOD regularly and upto 100 % occasionally which gives an even larger
capacity advantage compared to lead acid batteries. These batteries are completely maintenance
free, they can be stored any loading condition, they don't consume distilled water, they don't
release gases, no water cooling is required, the battery efficiency is very high due to low internal
resistance. The last advantage of low internal resistance is at the same time the only disadvantage
to the designer. The very low internal resistance causes very high short circuit currents which have
to be handled by appropriate measures in the design of the ship's network.
At present TKMS and GAIA have tested the first 500 Ah Cells in Germany. Concurrently Isreal Navy,
Japanese Navy, American, Australian and Chinese Navies are conducting trials with these batteries.
It is suggested to immediately try the VRLA technology as transit step to ultimately try the Lithium
based technology in line with the technology advancement happening around the world.

312
 Author's Biodata

1962 born Mr. A. Srinivas Nagaraj, Vice President NED Energy Limited is an Electrical & Electronics
Engineer graduated from JNTU College of Engineering, Hyderabad in 1984. He has rich experience as
professional engineer for over 25 years working in various reputed companies. He has completed his
schooling from prestigious Hyderabad Public School, Ramanthapur in Hyderabad.
He has worked with various reputed companies in the capacity of Electrical Engineer before working
with NED Energy Limited, Hyderabad which has been started as a startup company in 2000 with
technology tie up with Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore with funding from TDB ( Technology
Development Board ) and IREDA ( Indian Renewable Development Agency)
He is part of the core group of battery professionals in NED Energy Limited which started as Start Up
Company way back in 2000 and reached self sustain business objectives of Rs over 200 Crores.
He has been working with NED for over 15 years in the capacity of Vice President responsible for R &
D Technology and Lean Operations Management including design, quality control, production and
overall profitability of the company apart from marketing of lead acid batteries.
He takes keen interest in avid reading and upgrading his skill set by continual learning. He also works
as chief learning and Chief Information Officer in NED Energy Limited.
NED has technical collaboration with Indian Institute of Sciences, Bangalore for Design,
Development and Production of various types of lead acid batteries serving the telecom,solar,ups
sectors.
He is also involved with Indian Institute of Sciences Bangalore in R & D activities of new material, new
processes and new lead acid batteries and has published over 14 international papers in
International journals and participated in European Lead Acid Battery.
He regularly involves and participates various solar related activities for energy storage with MNRE
and other solar companies. His interest in solar energy storage devices spans lead acid batteries of
various types including conventional AGM batteries, Advanced VRLA Lead Acid Batteries, Tubular Gel
VRLA batteries including Flooded conventional Lead Acid Batteries.
He is part of the team from NED Energy Limited coauthored with IISc Bangalore which published 17
international papers in International Jouranals and hold 8 Indian and American Patents as co-
applicants

313
 Professor Vladimir N. Tryaskin
(Saint-Petersburg State Marine Technical
University, Russia)

Saint Petersburg State Marine Technical University – the Russia's leading higher educational
establishment, conducting training of specialists for design, construction and operation of
underwater technical means

ABSTRACT
The presentation begins with a short history of the establishment and evolution of Saint-Petersburg
State Marine Technical University (formerly known as the Leningrad Shipbuilding Institute) with
emphasis on some academic and research activities related to training of engineers in the field of
design, construction and technology of production of underwater vehicles. The presentation
includes reference to famous professors, which laid the foundation for special courses, and
outstanding graduates who largely contributed to the development of underwater vehicles for
both the Russian Federation and foreign countries. The presentation touches upon the structure of
the educational programs and disciplines related to the matter under discussion as well as some
manuals and monographs used for training of the future engineers specializing in conception and
implementation of advanced underwater technique. Some examples are provided of underwater
vehicles designed by the SMTU graduates. Peculiarities are noted of the methodology of training
and special features of the SMTU academic process related to establishment of industrial
affiliations of the academic departments of the University. Examples of research and development
of underwater vehicles, conducted at the SMTU, are presented with the goal to illustrate cross-
fertilizing effects of cooperation of the university, industrial enterprises (design bureaus and
shipyards) and innovation technology companies. Synergetic role is discussed of internal and
international conferences organized by the university in widening the knowledge and contact base
in the areas related to underwater vehicles.

314
Author's Biodata
Vladimir N. Tryaskin graduated with honors from Leningrad Shipbuilding
Institute (now Saint-Petersburg State Marine Technical University-SMTU) in
1972. He got his PhD and Doctor of Technical Sciences degree correspondingly
in 1979 and 2007 from the same Institution. Professor and Chairman of the
Department of Ship Construction from 2000 until present time. Dean of the
Faculty of Shipbuilding and Ocean Engineering of SMTU from 2008 through
2013. From 2013 until present time- Vice-Rector for Academic Affairs and the
First Vice-Rector of the University. Professor V.N. Tryaskin is a famous scientist
and engineer in the field of shipbuilding, the author and co-author of many
publications and patents. His research achievements include development of
methodology of parametric design of ship hull structures, creation of
methodologies of estimation of admissible conditions for operation of ice-
going ships and simulation of action of ice loads upon ship hull. He laid the
foundation of approaches to the development of algorithms and software for
determination of technical state of the ship hull in compliance with regulatory
provisions of classification societies. He has significantly contributed to the
preparation of normative documents of the Russian Maritime Register of
Shipping and the development of software in provision of Common Structural
Rules of the International Association of Classification Societies. He actively
supervises Master and PhD theses of Russian and foreign postgraduate
students. Professor Vladimir N. Tryaskin is a member of numerous scientific
councils and dissertation committees and, starting from 2015, – a member of
the Presidium of the Higher Attestation Commission of the Ministry of
Education and Science of the Russian Federation.

315
 Full-scale test facility for testing submarine
fire protection systems: parameters
and capabilities

Since India, as it has already been repeatedly emphasized at this seminar, is striving for self-reliance
in submarine design, your naval architects might probably already be facing numerous challenging
technical tasks, and submarine safety is one of them.
The emergencies that happen from time to time at the submarines of various navies are a
lamentable proof of the fact that safety is not to be underrated. Thus, in 1989 Soviet nuclear
submarine Komsomolets was lost in the aftermath of the fire, and the reason for this disaster was a
sealing failure in her high-pressure air system.
KSRC has many years of experience in analytical assessments of survivability and fire & explosion
safety of various platforms, as well as in assessing technical safety of nuclear power plants aboard
submarines. Fire effect parameters are calculated as per the in-house procedure by means of the
software package based on it.
Indeed, we have advanced significantly in our studies, yet a number of mathematical models
describing the progress of emergencies, as well as the effects of these emergencies upon hull
structures and equipment, still require validation in full-scale experiments.
We would like to inform you about our new development likely to be quite helpful in coping with
many of these challenges.
In 2017 KSRC will commission an extension module to its existing test facility for simulation of fires
aboard ships, and this will be a full-scale testing module for experimental studies of fires in
watertight spaces, as well as for development of fire protection tools for submarines.
The module consists of the body; the hardware that ensures the functioning of the module itself
and the equipment being tested there; and the instrumentation system.
As of now, our module, including its internal equipment, is 100% ready. Hydraulic tests are
scheduled for spring 2017.
This test facility is meant to provide the most realistic simulation of structures aboard a real
submarine.
The body of the testing module has the total volume of 700 m3and consists of two adjacent
cylindrical watertight compartments simulating those of a submarine. The body is the main
element of the testing module and intended to perform the entire scope of experiments according
to the module's purpose. Maximum design overpressure of the module is 5 kg/cm2 (0.5 MPa).
The first compartment of the module has the volume of 260 m3 is divided by two welded decks
running one above another.
The second deck of the 1st compartment has a strength enclosure simulating the cabin post
(volume 18 m3). Maximum design overpressure of this enclosure is 2 kg/cm2 (0.2 MPa).

316
The hold of the 1st compartment accommodates another strength enclosure (volume 50 m3) that
will serve to experimentally study the equipment resistance not only to fire but to steaming, too.
Maximum design overpressure of this enclosure is 3 kg/cm2 (0.3 MPa).
The 2nd compartment accommodates a zonal module consisting of three decks connected by
pillars.
Outside the 2nd compartment, there is a tank that can be filled with water to simulate diving.
The module is intended to support the following tasks:
n Experimental studies of real fire escalation dynamics inside submarine compartments,
considering the changes in pressure and oxygen content;
n Determination of thermal effects upon the submarine's hull and equipment;
n Testing fire-fighting tools and fire alarm systems of a submarine, as well as her structural fire
protection means, including the passages through bulkheads and decks, fire-resistant doors
and hatches;
n Experimental determination of submarine equipment resistance to fire and pressure.
Temperature studies regarding fires inside submarines compartments, as well as the tests of fire-
fighting, fire alarm and TV monitoring systems, can be performed in the entire volume of
Compartments 1 and 2, used either severally or together (bulkhead hatches open).
Besides, to perform the experiments as per the scope of the tasks intended for this facility, there is a
number of dedicated testing sites inside the compartments of the testing module, and namely:
n Site for functional testing of filters for air cleaning systems (Deck 1 of Compartment 1);
n Site for fire resistance testing of fire protection means applied on strength bulkheads, cabling
and piping routes (Deck 2 of Compartment 2);
n Site for fire resistance testing of structural fire protection means applied on light gas-proof
bulkheads and decks, cabling and piping routes, doors and hatches (Cabin / Post);
n Site for fire resistance testing of high-pressure air system equipment (Deck 1 of Compartment
1);
n Site for fire resistance testing of hydraulic and lube oil systems equipment (Deck 3 of
Compartment 2);
n Sites for fire and pressure resistance testing of radioelectronic equipment cabinets, control
panels, electric and mechanic equipment (Compartments 1 and 2);
n Site for fire resistance tests of cabling routes (Deck 2 of Compartment 2);
n Site for fire resistance tests of chemical air regeneration and cleaning devices (Deck 1 of
Compartment 1);
n Site for steaming resistance tests of submarine equipment (strength enclosure in the hold of
Compartment 1).

317
Instrumentation system of the module allows monitoring of the following parameters:
v Gas-air mix temperature: up to 1000°С;
v Overpressure: up to 5 kg/cm²;
v Optical density of smoke: 0-42 dB;
v Heat flux power: up to 50 kW/m²;
v Air-gas flow speed: up to 30 m/s;
v Chemical composition of gas-air mixture (O2, СО, СО2, CH, freons, etc.).
As of today, the module to be commissioned has nothing similar anywhere in the world. This facility
will be a real breakthrough in studying the dynamics of fire escalation inside submarine
compartments and will provide a better understanding of how the fire breaks out, how it
propagates throughout compartments, how to detect and extinguish it and how to combat its
outcomes.
Currently, fire-fighting and fire alarm systems of submarines are tested at non-watertight test rigs
as per the procedures developed for surface ships, whereas our module will allow testing in the
conditions as close to real ones as possible, thus making these tests more reliable and efficient.
The tests on the elements of strength bulkheads and decks, as well as efficiency testing of structural
fire protection means will be possible to perform under simultaneous effect of temperature and
pressure, which will also contribute to working out more reliable and efficient solutions to be
adopted in submarine design.
We are ready to examine your proposals regarding the tests at this facility in support of Indian
submarine development.

318
Author's Biodata
Aleksandr A. Ismagilov, Captain 1st Rank (Reserve)

Chief Expert of Underwater Platforms Design Department, Krylov State

Research centre.

Born in 1960 in the town of Gorlovka, USSR. Graduate of Leninsky Komsomol

Higher Naval School for Underwater Navigation (Class '82), qualification
"Engineer". Joined KSRC in 2015 after retirement from the Russian Navy. An
expert in design of underwater platforms.

Sergei V. Shedko

Head of Department of Ship Damage Control, Safety and Ergonomics, Krylov

State Research Centre. Awarded with the Scholarship of the President of the
Russian Federation for military industry employees.

Born in 1969 in the city of Leningrad (now St. Petersburg). Joined KSRC in
1992, after graduation from Leningrad Shipbuilding Institute (now St.
Petersburg State Maritime University). Having started his work as an
engineer, Mr. Shedko was going steadily up the career ladder, and 2016 saw
his promotion to the position of Head of Department.

The main focus of his activities is to develop design support methods and
tools to ensure survivability and safety of surface ships, submarines and
support vessels by means of emergency simulations. Having pursued these
efforts over his 25-year long career, Mr. Shedko is now the co-author of 13
technologies (in 7 of these, he was the principal developer) and 11 patented
software products.

Author of numerous scientific papers, including the 50 ones available from

publicly-accessible sources.

319
 SUBMARINE CONSTRUCTION IN INDIA:
THE MDL EXPERIENCE
By Capt Rajiv Lath IN (Retd)
Director (Submarines & Heavy Engineering), MDL

Introduction
Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Ltd (MDL) is the only shipyard in the country to have built conventional
submarines. MDL has built two SSK class submarines, undertaken the Medium Refit of all four SSK
submarines of the Indian Navy, and is presently engaged in the series production of six Scorpene
class submarines. It is also poised to undertake the Medium Refit and Life Certification of two SSK
submarines and future Submarine projects for Indian Navy.

Objective & Scope

This paper highlights the unique experience of MDL in the field of submarine construction,
especially w.r.t. the ongoing Scorpene project P75. The sea trials of the first submarine are well
underway, the second is about to be launched, the boot-together of the third will be completed this
month, and the balance three boats are in various stages of structural/ engineering outfitting.
The initial trials and tribulations, the overcoming of teething challenges with sheer perseverance
and determination, the innovations, lessons learnt and applied, the build-up of infrastructure,
achievements et al, are all dealt with in the paper.

Conclusion
The paper will conclude by highlighting the experience gained in building conventional submarines
and how MDL overcame the challenges faced during construction process & is now ready to take on
new projects.
Keywords: Submarine construction, Refits, Scorpene, MDL

320
Author's Biodata
Captain Rajiv Lath took over as Director (Submarines and Heavy Engineering) of
Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders Limited in Sep 13. A Project Management expert,
he has been associated with the prestigious Scorpene project at MDL for more
than 10 years, heading various groups viz. Design, Planning, Production, &
Project Management.
An alumnus of the National Defence Academy, Defence Services Staff College
and Naval College of Warfare, Captain Lath is an experienced engineer, who has
completed more than 20 years in the Submarine Branch of the Indian Navy. He
has served in the Naval Dockyards with distinction, for more than 10 years, in
multifarious roles of Planning, Production, HR and Resource Planning. He is a
qualified Six Sigma Green Belt & Black Belt and Lead Auditor for ISO 9000/2000,
ISO 14001 (EMS) and OHSAS 18001.
An experienced Submariner, he has been the squadron Engineer & also the
chief Engineer of Submarine Squadrons. Commended twice by the Chief of
Naval Staff for his outstanding contributions, Captain Lath was selected for the
'Outstanding Engineer Award' by the Institution of Engineers (India) in Nov
2015, at the 29th National Convention of Marine Engineers.

321
 Future Solutions for the lifecycle management of
submarines
By Stéphane Neuvéglise
Senior Business & Industry Consultant – Marine, AVEVA

Abstract
The spiralling costs of new warships, and the time taken to bring them into front-line service,
frequently make headlines in national newspapers, add to this a world-wide shortage of
experienced naval designers and technical specialists.
Besides this, Submarines are the most unforgiving of vessels and, from their introduction, methods
have been sought to rescue their crews in the event of an unrecoverable submergence.
Such a complex and pioneering vessel represents a huge design challenge. Every new vessel begins
as a concept in response to an operational requirement, and its early design must bring together
many different disciplines in an iterative process of outline design, analysis and review.
In this presentation we will go through Future Marine solutions&lifecycle management of
submarines. And how integrated computing technology can deliver better warships, more quickly,
at less cost.

322
Author's Biodata
Stéphane Neuvéglise is a senior business & industry consultant within AVEVA
focussing on our marine solutions. He has a deep knowledge of the shipbuilding
industry and a clear understanding of market trends, which he initially acquired
in previous roles as Senior Consultant in charge of Product Strategy and Product
Marketing for Marine, Marine Business Developer for AVEVA Southern Europe.
Stéphane joined AVEVA in 2005, following a successful career in shipbuilding.
He first worked for 14 years for a major cruise-ship builder, where he held
various positions, focusing on FEM calculation and CAD/CAM, becoming HVAC
Contract Manager and finally Head of the Coordination Design Office. In this
way, he acquired an in-depth understanding of shipyard processes in the
design, workshops, production and commissioning of large passenger ships. He
then spent a couple of years as the head of a ship design agent, providing design
services for navy shipyards, before joining AVEVA.

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 Current Trends in SSK Design

Main challenges faced by the evolution of non-nuclear submarines nowadays are determined. The
presentation addresses current trends in the making (design, construction) and operation of future
underwater platforms. Offered are the major directions of further development for non-nuclear
submarines. Primarily they include universality of platforms, increased stealth and submerged
endurance, submarine cost optimization. Examples and proposals for creation of advanced non-
nuclear submarine are given based on the Amur 1650 submarine.

Author's Biodata
Andrei Baranov is the Deputy to Director General of the Rubin Design Bureau (incorporated into the
United Shipbuilding Corporation). He is responsible for foreign-economic affairs and military-
technical cooperation with foreign countries and has been working in the Design Bureau since 1986.
Andrei Baranov has a diploma in microelectronics and master's degree in submarine design.

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 INDIGENOUS CAPABILITIES IN STRUCTURAL
DESIGN OF MARINE VESSELS

Synopsis
Design of naval vessels/special ships has been done through first principles since ages that
depended a lot on technical knowhow, skills and past experience. The process being spiral in nature
took long time to develop but with the advent of modern computers algorithms the long process of
calculations has not only shortened, from months and years to days and weeks but has also given
designers the ability to carry out structural experiments and develop innovative designs in the safe
environments of efficient computer algorithms that generate quick results and help designers
decide on the acceptable designs. Finite Element structural design packages are such commercially
available tools. Developments of Naval ship rules by certain classification societies also highlight
the importance of FEM analysis to prove the deviations/ innovations/ compliances in designs.
Maestro is unique Finite Element software developed by none other than Dr Owen F Hughes,
author of ship structural design bible that not only provides FEM analysis but also provides
evaluation of structural designs based on in-built empirical relations derived from numerous
research papers and theories on design of plated structures/beams/frames/girders etc. The
software is being used by 13 navies and numerous design agencies and shipyards in 23 countries
and provides an unhindered capability in design of floating/non-floating structures with desired
reliability and unmatched efficiency. The software has strong applications in structural designs of
ships/submarines/off-shore structures/aircraft structures and general purpose (floating/non-
floating structures). Even though the software is under Export restrictions of US government but is
commercially available on case to case basis. The software is now brought to India with local
expertise to develop indigenous platforms with much potency.

About Maestro
MAESTRO is a design, analysis, and evaluation tool specifically tailored for floating structures, and
has been fielded as a commercial product for over 30 years with a world-wide user base.
MAESTRO's history is rooted in rationally-based structural design, which is defined as a design,
directly and entirely based on structural theory and computer-based methods of structural analysis
(e.g., finite element analysis and structural limit state evaluation). It's a unique one of its kind
software that also reports structural adequacy parameters (33) in addition to FEM results. At
MAESTRO's core is a structural design tool developed to suit the needs of ship designers and naval
architects. Further, the MAESTRO development staff and support team are themselves naval
architects who understand the ship design and analysis process. The MAESTRO technology is
organized within an open software architecture, with a set of core components and integration
with supporting software modules and interfaces.

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At Maestro's core is the philosophy of a rationally based computer aided optimization approach by
Dr Owen F Hughes, its creator and developer. Dr Hughes was a BS and MS in Naval Architecture from
MIT, Boston and PhD in Naval Architecture from New South Wales, Australia. He was professor of
ship structures at Department of Aerospace and Ocean Engineering, Virgina Tech, Blacksburg, VA.
Dr Hughes was NavSea Research professor at the US Naval Academy, chairman of the SNAME panel
on design procedures and chairman of ISSC committee on Computer-Aided Design.

Importance of Maestro
MAESTRO is an important tool because it is the only software which is made exclusively for floating
structures, keeping in mind the needs of structural designers, manufacturers and shipyards. This
software is much more than just designing. It is a tool to predict the motions and wave loads of
floating structures; a tool to calculate hull girder load response RAOs; a tool to predict extreme
values of the maximum loads for a given vessel; a tool to perform global fatigue screening of the
vessel and much more. It is truly unique software in that allows you to optimize your structural
designs in an efficient and cost effective manner.

Organisations using Maestro

The computer program MAESTRO is used by 13 navies around the world including the US, Canada,
Brazil, and Australia, various structural safety authorities, and by structural designers and shipyards
in Europe, North America, Asia and Australia. It is also used by most major shipyards and many
design firms around the US and the world. MAESTRO is in use in 23 countries by over 90
organizations. Maestro is used by largest shipyards in US, namely Ingalls Shipbuilding, Bath Iron
Works, and NASSCO. In Europe, examples of two large shipyards that use MAESTRO are Navantia in
Spain, and Fincantieri in Italy (their subsidiary Cetena).

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Maestro Environment
The MAESTRO Technology is organized within an open software architecture, with a set of core
components, and integration with supporting software modules and interfaces. The MAESTRO
Technology depiction below highlights the key functional and integrated features of this advanced
system developed specifically for the structural design, analysis and optimization of ship structures.

Capabilities of Maestro Modules

MAESTRO offers a number of features in different modules that play a critical role in making of an
optimized design. The capabilities of Maestro are briefly described below.
Modeling – MAESTRO's modeling paradigm is organized to rapidly generate a finite element model
of an entire ship. Hull girder properties such as inertias, cross-sectional area, neutral axis, and
section modulus can be plotted and queried for any section cut within the model. In addition to its
built-in modeling capabilities, MAESTRO can read geometry from FEMAP, Nastran, NAPA Steel, DXF,
and polygon mesh (.ply) files. Once a model is loaded into MAESTRO from another source, all of the
hull girder properties, ship-based loading, post-processing, and advanced capabilities are available
to the user just as if the model had been created in MAESTRO.
MAESTRO also provides fine meshing capabilities which allow the global model to be automatically
refined while maintaining the original scantling properties and loads. The fine mesh model(s) can
be analyzed as a separate model or integrated into the global model. Either option automatically
applies the appropriate boundary conditions to impose the global loads onto the fine mesh
model(s).

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Loading – MAESTRO offers numerous ship-based loading patterns (e.g., Basic Loads: Cargo Loads,
Liquid Tank Loads; Sea Environment: Hull Girder Loads/Sea Loads/Ship Motion Loads; and
Operational Loads: Slamming/Flooding/Docking) to accurately and efficiently produce the
necessary load cases. MAESTRO also includes a load balance capability which automatically
balances the model in a stillwater or wave condition for each load case. Once a model is loaded and
balanced, multiple longitudinal and transverse distributions (e.g., weight, buoyancy, shear force,
bending moment, etc.) are available to quickly QA the model before solving.

Structural Evaluation – In addition to calculating displacements and stresses using the finite
element analysis method, MAESTRO also performs an automatic failure evaluation of the principal
structural members. These failure evaluation modes address yielding, buckling, and other major
failure modes typically found in design criteria. This is one of the most powerful failure evaluation
capabilities available to the ship structural engineer, and results in a comprehensive level of
information that identifies structural problems associated with events such as buckling. The
available structural evaluation methodologies include MAESTRO Evaluation, ALPS/ULSAP,
ALPS/HULL (hull girder ultimate strength), ABS High Speed Naval Craft (HSNC) and Offshore
Buckling Guide, and US Navy NVR criteria. A structural evaluation framework in MAESTRO exists so
that additional design criteria and class rule checks can be easily implemented as needed.

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MAESTRO-Wave (Integrated Hydrodynamic Loads Prediction) – The MAESTRO-Wave module
provides the ship designer with an integrated frequency-domain/timedomain computational tool
to predict the motions and wave loads of floating structures. Because this tool is integrated into the
MAESTRO interface, the learning curve is greatly reduced and the need to transfer data between
programs is eliminated. MAESTRO-Wave takes advantage of the existing structural mesh and
defined loads to formulate the equations of motion. This approach results in a perfect equilibrium
for the structural model so no inertia relief or artificial loads are required to balance the model.
Bending moments, shear forces and torsional moments are all automatically in closure. MAESTRO-
Wave can also account for tank sloshing loads and provides several roll damping options. The
MAESTRO-Wave output provides a unit wave database and panel pressure loads for all of the
speeds, headings, and wave frequencies run. A variety of visualizations and output data are
available to aid the user with post-processing.

Extreme Load Analysis (ELA) – The ELA module allows the user to calculate hull girder load
response RAOs, and provides the necessary short-term and long-term statistical computations to
predict extreme values of the maximum loads for a given vessel. This includes the ability to define or
import wave scatter diagrams, operational profiles, and wave spectra, as well as to compute hull
girder RAOs for the most common dominant load parameters (e.g., vertical bending moment).
Finally, extreme equivalent regular waves (equivalent design waves) are internally computed and
selected for assessment of extreme global loads. The user has a variety of options to add still water
loads to the wave-induced loads and to re-balance these components.

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Spectral Fatigue Analysis (SFA) – The SFA module provides the ability to perform global fatigue
screening of the vessel and introduces additional functionality to the ELA module to compute Stress
and Displacement RAOs, define and associate structural groups to SN curves and Stress
Concentration Factors (SCFs), and compute fatigue damage based on the Miner cumulative
damage principle.
NAPA/MAESTRO Interface – MAESTRO can interface directly with NAPA in order to leverage
existing geometry and loading information. This interface enables shorter design cycle times by
using a single 3D structural design model (from NAPA) that can be re-used as the design matures
and is ready for MAESTRO analysis in a matter of minutes.
Natural Frequency Analysis – MAESTRO allows the user to perform a natural frequency analysis
and visually identify the dominant global modes. The analysis can be performed in a dry or wet
mode, in which the added mass of the seawater is automatically applied to the “wettable”
elements based on the immersion condition.
Corrosion Modeling – MAESTRO provides the capability to model corrosion as an additive property
associated with a particular load case. The new plate and beam thickness are automatically used in
the finite element analysis and strength assessment. This enables the user to use a single finite
element model throughout the lifecycle of the vessel, easily analyzing “as-is” corrosion information
or “what-if” scenarios.
ULS-Based Optimization - The MAESTRO Optimization module allows a user to optimize a given
structure ranging from a single stiffened panel to a hull girder cross section to a full-ship model
using a multi-objective, heuristic-based optimization approach. During the optimization setup,
users are able to define design clusters which ensure scantling properties are consistent
throughout the group to support realistic and producible designs. For each scantling optimization
iteration, a new finite element analysis is run with the updated properties and adequacy
parameters are evaluated and used to optimize the structure for the next run. The optimization
module allows the user to select from a variety of optimization methods including Simulated
Annealing, Genetic Algorithms, Monte Carlo, and an exhaustive search.

Applications of Maestro
The software has strong applications in structural designs of ships/submarines/off-shore
structures/aircraft structures and general purpose (floating/non-floating structures).

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Export Restrictions on Software
The SOFTWARE is subject to the United States Export Regulations, as administered by the
Department of Commerce, Bureau of Industry Security. The SOFTWARE may not be used in or
exported/re-exported to any country to which the United States embargoes goods. The same
restriction applies to persons, no matter where they are located, that appear on the Table of Denial
Orders, the Entity List, or the List of Specially Designated Nationals.

Make in India/IDDM/Role of MSME

We intend to share our expertise in structural design and analysis using the MAESTRO software with
both government and private institutions. We will work with our clients throughout the design
process covering hull form design, ship structures, resistance and powering analysis, stability
calculations, hydrodynamic predictions, as well as seakeeping and maneuvering analysis. Our
structural design and analysis services include creating conceptual designs, functional level
drawings and detailed production level drawings in accordance with industry and government
regulatory standards. We also offer structural optimization services to those customers looking for
an optimized structural design that minimizes structural weight, minimizes cost, assures structural
safety and manages the structural vertical center of gravity. These optimization services can be
applied to an existing customer's finite element model, or model can be built by Inoviea. Besides,
we also offer license for the MAESTRO software, provide training, provide second opinion on
already designed structures and conduct forensic analysis of damaged ship/floating structures. In
India, Inoviea is the only company in India that has expertise of using the software for structural
design and analysis of floating vessels with demonstrable experience.
We at Inoviea are very excited to make our contribution towards the Make in India initiative and
since defence manufacturing is one of the 25 sectors indentified for this initiative. We feel that we
can make some significant contributions towards this sector in the areas of manufacturing,
designing, training, consultancy and making possible the IDDM (Indigenously Designed Developed
and Manufactured). Involving and enhancing the role of MSMEs holds great potential in keeping
the costs of platforms competitive. We strongly believe in India's ability to design and manufacture
aircraft carriers, destroyers and submarines in India and are here to provide full technical support to
the government and private institutions in this niche domain.

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 Author's Biodata
Cdr Suchin Jain (Retd) A naval architect from CUSAT, Kochi, Post Graduate from IIT Delhi & Certificate
Business Management from IIM Ahmedabad. An Ex-Indian Navy Commander has 26 years of rich
professional experience. Undertook extensive FEM analysis of India's first indigenous aircraft carrier.
Associated with design and construction of ASW corvette, destroyers, Follow-on stealth frigate and
nuke sub. Finished over 100 refits on more than 40 ships and subs. Handled over 600 contracts in
various stages &was part of IN projects worth over 14 billion USD. A member of CII North Regional
Committee on Aerospace and Defence, Member & Technical Secretary Institution of Naval Architects
(Delhi Chapter) and Fellow Institutions of Engineers (India). Hefounded Inoviea, a consulting and
Services Company (www.inoviea.com) offering holistic solutions in design, technical, management
and marketing domains.

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 About FICCI
Established in 1927, FICCI is the largest and oldest apex business
organisation in India. Its history is closely interwoven with India's
struggle for independence, its industrialization, and its
emergence as one of the most rapidly growing global economies.

A non-government, not-for-profit organisation, FICCI is the voice

of India's business and industry. From influencing policy to
encouraging debate, engaging with policy makers and civil
society, FICCI articulates the views and concerns of industry. It
serves its members from the Indian private and public corporate
sectors and multinational companies, drawing its strength from
diverse regional chambers of commerce and industry across
states, reaching out to over 2,50,000 companies.

FICCI provides a platform for networking and consensus building

within and across sectors and is the first port of call for Indian
industry, policy makers and the international business community.

For more information, please contact:

Vivek Pandit Bhaskar Kanungo
Senior Director & Head - Deputy Director
Energy / Defence & Aerospace Defence & Aerospace
FICCI
Industry’s Voice for Policy Change
Federation House , Tansen Marg, New Delhi 110001
E: vivek.pandit@ficci.com, bhaskar.kanungo@ficci.com
T:+91-11-23354801, +91-11-23487276
F:+91-11-23765333
W: www.ficci.com